Why does the public so staunchly support harsh criminal justice policies when the social, fiscal and political costs are so great? Individuals in countries such as Canada, the UK and USA continue to want criminal offenders to receive stiffer sentences despite growing prison populations and some indication of lower crime rates (Cullen, Fisher & Applegate, 2000; Donohue, 2007; King, 2008; Raphael, 2009; Tseloni et al., 2010; Useem et al., 2003; Walmsley, 2009). Criminological research has identified cognitive and affective pathways that predict punitiveness toward crime, such as the judged wrongfulness and harmfulness of crime, and moral outrage (Carlsmith & Darley, 2008). The overall contribution of the five papers presented in this thesis is to identify the cognitive, affective and behavioural pathways that link social perception of criminals to punitiveness toward crime. Working at the intersection of social psychology and criminology, the thesis applies theoretical frameworks such as the Stereotype Content Model (Fiske, Cuddy, Glick & Xu, 2002) and Behaviour from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes map (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2007) to identify the functional relation between social perception and punitiveness. Using different methodologies and at different levels of analysis, this thesis provides strong evidence that the content of criminal stereotypes is associated with specific cognitive (e.g., perceiving crime as being more serious), affective (e.g., feeling anger and a lack of compassion) and behavioural (e.g., wanting to exclude and attack) responses. In turn, criminal stereotypes and their outcomes engender punitive intuitions, decisions and attitudes. These findings reconcile extant criminological research on punitiveness with social psychological research on the function of social stereotypes. This thesis also speaks more broadly to the association between punitiveness toward crime and basic social psychological processes related to interpersonal perception and relations. In this respect, this thesis makes a significant contribution to the study of punitiveness toward crime and has important social policy implications.

Long hidden from academic scrutiny, children of prisoners have recently become the subjects of much academic study, through a variety of disciplines and methods. However many issues within this topic remain under-examined. This study aimed to explore two such issues: the self-reported experiences of children of prisoners, and children in the Canadian context. This thesis analyses the results of qualitative interviews with children aged 6-17 who currently have a parent in prison (N=22). Employing a ‘sociology of childhood’ framework, this project seeks to centre the voice of children themselves, privileging their own views and meaning-making. These data are supplemented with other findings to provide context to children’s narratives, including: interviews with these children’s caregivers in the community (N=12); interviews with a variety of key informants; observations gathered during extensive recruitment efforts with families of prisoners; and reviews of existing policy documents and service provision specific to parental incarceration. The thesis begins with a review of the existing literature, followed by a description of the methods used in the present study. The analysis then begins in Chapter 4 with a discussion of the context of these children’s lives, with a particular focus on poverty. Moving to the data from children themselves, Chapters 5 and 6 explore children’s inner lives and immediate relationships, specifically their emotions about parental incarceration and relationships with their parents. Chapters 7 and 8 pull back to reveal children’s interactions with their communities, and Chapter 9 widens the lens further to explore their experiences within the social policy context. Through a variety of empirical findings and by telling the story of parental incarceration in Canada from a critical and child-centred perspective, this thesis contributes to the scholarly understanding of parental incarceration.

Background: The Good Lives Model (GLM) is a novel strengths-based rehabilitation framework, the principles of which are increasingly being integrated into sexual offender treatment programmes. Previous research has suggested that positive therapist characteristics are empirically associated with treatment change in sexual offender treatment. However, considering the theoretically informed shift from a deficits-based approach to a strengths-based approach in GLM-consistent treatment (GLM-CT), it is reasonable to suggest that therapist characteristics might be reflected differently. Objective: To explore and identify, by expert opinion, what therapist characteristics are important in GLM-consistent treatment and how they might be recognised in a treatment session. Methods: A systematic review of the literature was carried out to appraise the reporting quality of studies that used the Delphi method to develop knowledge on psychotherapeutic models. The empirical study used a three-round Delphi method, a structured consensus-gathering technique, with 28 GLM experts from five different countries. The data in the first round were analysed using content analysis, and data in subsequent round were analysed using descriptive statistics. Results: The systematic review found that the reporting quality in Delphi method studies was respectable in relation to the preparatory stages; however, the reporting quality of aspects of the Delphi methodology important for interpreting the results varied. In regards to the empirical paper, experts endorsed 71 items reflecting the GLM ethos and principles in treatment, listed between twelve categories. Conclusions: The results of the present study suggested that therapeutic characteristics previously identified in sexual offending treatment are indeed important in GLM-consistent treatment. However, additional characteristics were highlighted as important by experts, including emphasis on future-focused and strengths-based language, motivational interviewing skills, flexibility with session material and a good knowledge of clients’ good lives plans. Finally, the results indicated that use of self-disclosure and directiveness in GLM-CT might need to be elucidated in future research.

This thesis studies aspects of women's criminal behaviour during the period from 1780-1830, using the criminal court records from two juridical areas: the City of London and the county of Berkshire. It considers all types of indictable crime, that tried in the local quarter session court and in the assize (high) court. It first establishes the numerical significance of female crime, which accounted for as little as one tenth of all indictments, with some variation between different courts and urban and rural areas. It also establishes some characteristics of female criminals, their age, marital status and place of birth. Compared to men, women's crime was less concentrated in the years of early adulthood, though the ill-defined nature of marriage among the lower orders at this period makes it difficult to establish any firm conclusions about the influence of marriage on a woman's criminal career. To attempt to explain these patterns, this work studies the social context of women's criminal activity, for this purpose separating property and violent crime. In the former case, a stress upon the practical, organizational aspects of crime suggests correlations between criminal potential and wider social freedoms. In the field of violent crime, women's involvement was more prevalent than might have been expected, challenging the notion that women's experience of violence is predominantly as a victim. Finally, the idea that women's lenient treatment by prosecutors accounts for their absence from the criminal records is addressed. From media accounts of women's crime there is evidence of a general disinclination to invest women with any criminal potential. A study of sentencing patterns reveals that women were less likely to be harshly treated that their male counterparts, though with some variation between crime types. It is argued however tha it is women's lesser criminal capacity, pre-determined by her social position, which creates these patterns, rather than the "chivalry" of male prosecutors.

This study investigates the impact of aspects of geographic location on criminal spatial behaviour. It is also concerned with where crimes occurs and how the location of crime may actually limit the behavioural possibilities of criminality, these limitations are derived, in part, from offenders representations of their offending locations and the potential for desired criminal activity in those locations. The underlying behavioural possibilities for criminal movement relate to the background characteristics of the individuals committing offences. The Thesis develops a locational characteristic paradigm, which puts the focus on where crime occurs reflecting the type of the individual who is likely to commit crime there. This study examines those features of individuals' psychological, physical or cultural backgrounds, as they relate to geography, that prohibit or inhibit forms of criminal movement. The study addresses this by focusing on an offenders' representation of crime opportunities, the distribution of crime locations and offenders considerations when planning their crimes. The study aims to provide a direct challenge to some of the key concepts within the criminal spatial literature, such as routine activity theory, rational choice theory, the psychological importance of the home and the influence of familiarity on crime locations. Individual differences across features of criminality are examined. Real crime cases are explored in order to unearth the differences within the geographic profile of offences. Offender representations of their offending areas are studied in an attempt to establish what these depictions actually represent. The work explores the distribution of offence locations and the rationale offenders put forward for why they offended where they did to establish if there are barriers to offending and how offenders account for these barriers, if at all. The first stage of the research is a Case Study introduction to the crime of Tiger Kidnap (TK) in Ireland. TK is an adaptation of a Standard Armed Robbery offence and is the term used to describe the abduction of a person(s) of importance to a target (generally a bank manager) in which that person(s) is used as collateral until the target complies with the requests of the offenders. What makes TK a unique crime is introduced and the substantial distribution of offence locations, something which has not previously been observed in the criminology literature, is discussed. The first empirical analysis addresses methodological concerns within the measurement of distance data. It challenges the related literature which suggests Crow Flight as a valid and reliable measure of criminal distance data. Previous studies acknowledge that Crow Flight knowingly underestimates the likely distance offenders travel and that it relates to the relative position of locations in the mental representations of distance. It is hypothesised that this difference is likely to be significant, and, that offenders conceptualise distance through routes, not relative positions of location. This was confirmed in the interviews with offenders. This study compliments previous work on this topic by opening the possibility of a new methodological alternative for measuring criminal distance data. The argument for this conceptualisation of distance is based on the advancement in technology and transport primarily, where offenders now have access to route information much more readily than they will have to deal with the relative position of locations. The advance planning found in the current cases show that offenders have gone as far as to travel the routes that they will use, indicating that these distances are considered in terms of routes and the time it takes to travel these routes. The hypothesis is that there is a significant difference between the Crow Flight measure and the Route Distance measure of distance data. A significant distortion in probable distance travelled compared to the Crow Flight measure was found. The findings provide support for the current argument that distance measures in future studies would have greater methodological precision if they were to favour the route distance measure . The work moves to examine the geographical profile of TK offences in Ireland. Building on the first study into distance measurements, and how using route distance appears to be, for Irish offences, a more psychologically valid form of measurement. The second study applied these findings onto the measurement stage of a sample of real cases of TK while also looking at the variation between offences. The hypothesis was that there would be a significant difference between TK in the North and South of Ireland. The analysis found that offenders in the North of Ireland had a significantly reduced geographic profile than offenders in the South. These differences relate to the type of offenders that are operating in those locations. Research from the Home Office and reports from the Police Service of North Ireland has suggested that TK in the North, are committed by ex-paramilitary offenders who are likely to have advanced skills in hostage taking and experience in staging and planning operations of this nature. This type of offender is less bound to the geographical opportunities that offenders in the South can avail of and operate on a much more refined geographic template than their counterparts in the South. This study highlights the distortion that can be found when studying types of offences as a whole, and, specifically, it showed the differences that can exist within the same crime type. The forth stage of the work explored offenders cognitive maps and the information that can be gleaned from the graphic representations of their crimes. The study tested the validity of a revised model of Appleyard's 1970's Sketch Map Classification Scheme. The study questions whether the multi optional classification schemes are too broad to distinguish one style of map from another. The results supported this position, finding that the rigid classification schemes are unreliable as they are too subjective in the manner in which they can be ascribed. However, it was found that there was a distinction between maps that were basic and simple over more complex maps. It was also found that the context behind the drawing, as in what was being represented by the offender, influenced the style of map that was presented. This suggests that knowledge of the background to the offender is just as integral to the process of classifying an individual's cognitive map as is the sketch map itself. The final study explores the role of psychological barriers to crime and offenders interpretation of their offending behaviour. This was achieved through exploring the distribution of crime around the Dublin region in Ireland. The hypothesis was that the distribution of offences would be restricted to the side of the city in which the offender resided. This was supported through the finding that offenders preferred to offend on the side of the city that they lived. This is illustrated in the maps that they marked their crimes on. This was based on the psychological barriers to movement that manifests itself in the River Liffey that divides the North of the city from the South of the City. Offenders rationale for offending on one side of the city over the other highlights an interesting development in that they equate the locations in which they offend to be based on issues removed from the influence of the river partition. Security consideration and closeness to home were offered as reasons why offenders offended where they did. However, when studying the distribution of offence locations they highlight a clear distinction in the form of a geographic arena, based on the river that divides the city. Further examples of this geographic arena are discussed in respect to the distribution of offence locations in the North of Ireland which relate to the border that previously divided the North of Ireland from the South of Ireland. This study highlighted the need for an understanding of not just offender characteristics but also the physical characteristics of the location of crime. The implications of these studies for how we conceptualise criminal spatial movement are discussed. At present, there exist little to no study into the area of spatial context, which is an understanding of the nature of the differences in movement based on the characteristic background of the offender. The special importance of the crime of TK and the unique contributes of this form of criminality is outlined. A criterion based paradigm for the measurement, analysis and interpretation of geographical data is put forward. An improved understanding of specific influencing aspects of offenders’ spatial behaviour will enhance the modelling of offender behaviour. This has implications for policing and the investigation of crime generally.

The roles of shame and guilt, and their relationships to empathy, have not been modelled adequately as key factors in moral decision-making in the study of violence. This research will test the different roles of empathy, shame, and guilt in violence decision-making using a Situational Action Theory perspective. Qualitative in-depth interviews were carried out with a violent offender subsample taken from the longitudinal Peterborough Adolescent and Young Adult Development Study (PADS+) in order to explore the role of moral emotion in specific real-life violent events. In addition, quantitative questionnaire indices enable comparison of the violent offender subsample with the remaining PADS+ study sample. Persistent offenders report significantly lower levels of empathy, shame and guilt on the quantitative indices, and weak empathy, shame, and guilt in their detailed recollections of specific acts of violence, e.g., “there’s not much guilt involved in the whole situation to be honest” (Sam, interview 39). The primary conclusion is that individuals with weak empathy, shame, and guilt are more likely to commit acts of violence. These study findings give insight into the real world, situational application of empathy, shame, and guilt, and provide strong support for the role of weak morality in violence decision-making.

This thesis has investigated the offence of robbery. Specifically, the semi-systematic review analysed commercial armed robbery, grouping offenders in terms of an apparent scale of professionalism to amateurism. Within armed robbery, target hardening strategies appear to have reduced opportunities for professionals, with a corresponding increase in amateur armed robbers fuelled by drug habits. The empirical study found that levels of interaction used by an offender with a victim increased with offender age. Interaction was lower for a robbery committed in an external location and for offenders with previous convictions for offences against the person and property. The violence facet could not be labelled as a specific discriminatory predictor. The findings from the research and semi-systematic review distinguished between two types of robbery offender; a career professional and an amateur antisocial robber. A career professional is older and more experienced, more likely to offend in a commercial location, commit the crime in a planned and controlled manner, use high levels of interaction and lower levels of violence. An amateur antisocial robber is more likely to commit an offence outside, have previous convictions for offences against the person and property and/or be under the influence of an illegal substance. The offence is likely to be opportunistic and chaotic, characterised by high levels of violence and low levels of interaction. The Inventory of Offender Risk, Needs and Strengths (IORNS) psychometric measure was analysed. It has the potential to provide an assessment of a robbery offender‟s ongoing treatment and risk management. However, it requires further validation and reliability analysis before it is deemed appropriate in doing so. The case study highlighted the impact of cannabis misuse on a robbery offender‟s behaviour pattern and mental illness. Implications for offender treatment needs, future therapeutic intervention and risk management are discussed along with the need for further validation of the proposed model.

The assessment and rehabilitation of young offenders is an important area within forensic Psychology, however knowledge regarding resilience and youth offending is deficient as outlined in Chapter One. Chapter Two is a systematic review of the literature examining the relevance of protective factors in young people’s desistance from crime. A number of protective factors were found to significantly discriminate between re-offenders and desisters, and an interactive relationship between risk and protective factors received most support. In Chapter Three the strengths and limitations of a psychometric tool to assess personal resiliency are discussed. In Chapter Four this measure was used to examine whether resiliency differed between males who had nonsexually offended, sexually offended, and not offended. Differences in personal resiliency were found between and within these groups. Limitations and implications for practice and future research are discussed in Chapter Five. It is concluded that the inclusion of protective factors and personal resiliency, alongside risk factors, improves the prediction of offending behaviour. Furthermore, these positive factors appear to be instrumental to the rehabilitation of young offenders.

This thesis explores the impact that positive interpersonal relationships have on reducing re-offending. Method: A systematic review used online resources to explore the impact on prison visits on wellbeing, rule breaking in prison and recidivism. Ten studies met inclusion criteria and standardised quality assessment was applied. A qualitative research study explored the experience of four prisoners and their partners during the prisoner sentence. The interview data was analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. A critique of an attachment measure the Relationship Scales Questionnaire, was conducted. Results: The systematic review found considerable variation in study quality, methods and findings. Studies found generally positive effects for visits. Visits reduced depressive symptoms; however, impact on rule breaking suggested a negative relationship. One study identified that visits reduced recidivism. The research identified four themes to explain the couples’ experience and impact of the relationship on offending; having a special connection, challenges and threats, reciprocal behaviours and maintaining a belief in the future. The RSQ evaluation suggests that it is effective tool to use in research. Conclusions: The findings suggest mechanisms through which relationships influence desistance. It has practical implications for supporting couples to maintain relationships and provides suggestions for future research in this area.

This thesis explores facial affect processing in violent offenders, with a specific focus on how patterns of impairment seen in Intimate Partner Violent (IPV) prisoners differ to those of other violent prisoners. Chapter one introduces IPV as a serious public health concern with inadequate treatment efficacy. It discusses the overlap between IPV and non-IPV violence and highlights the need for further research elucidating how the treatment needs of IPV prisoners differ to those of non-IPV prisoners. The role of facial affect processing is then discussed in relation to empathy and violent offending. Chapter two reviews the literature on facial affect processing in violent offenders. The review found deficits in violent offenders’ recognition of negative affect, with deficits in fear, anger and disgust most reliably reported, across indices of accuracy, sensitivity and response bias. Subtleties in processing patterns were observed between violent offenders and non-violent offenders, and between violent offenders and sexually-violent offenders. The review highlighted a dearth of research exploring facial affect processing in IPV prisoners. Chapter three presents a study investigating facial affect processing among IPV and non-IPV violent prisoners and nonoffending controls. It investigated the role of eye-scan paths as a mechanism underpinning recognition deficits in violent offenders and explored the influence of psychopathology on visual scanning behaviour. Groups did not differ in their recognition accuracy but they did differ in their eye-scan paths as a function of intensity and sex of the expression; with nonoffenders demonstrating different visual scanning behaviour relative to offender groups, who did not differ from each other. There was little evidence to suggest that eye-scan paths were influenced by psychopathological profiles of the groups. Chapter four presents a critique of the revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2, Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy & Sugarman, 1996), a widely used measure of IPV. The review highlights the objectivity of the measure as both a strength, in terms of its limiting denial, minimisation and cognitive distortions but also a limitation in its failure to take into consideration the context in which the behaviour occurred. The scales’ psychometric properties are also discussed. The thesis conclusions are presented in Chapter five, alongside recommendations for practice and research.