Within the field of L2 metaphoric competence (MC) research, Low’s (1988) and Littlemore and Low’s (2006a, 2006b) metaphor-related skills and (sub)competences have existed for 29 and 11 years respectively, but have never been elicited or used to develop tests. Consequently, the extent to which they are underpinned by more fundamental (sub)constructs is unclear. With a few exceptions (e.g., Littlemore, 2001), L2 MC tests to date have been limited in scope (e.g., Aleshtar & Dowlatabadi, 2014; Azuma, 2005; Hashemian & Nezhad, 2007; Zhao, Yu, & Yang, 2014). Available research shows that L2 MC correlates with L2 vocabulary knowledge and proficiency (Aleshtar & Dowlatabadi, 2014; Zhao et al., 2014), but negligibly with time spent in an L2 immersion setting (Azuma, 2005). However, the ability of these measures to predict L2 MC is unknown, as is the change in the receptive/productive correlation strength as L2 proficiency increases. In response to these gaps, a large battery of L2 MC tests aimed at eliciting Low’s (1988) and Littlemore and Low’s (2006a, 2006b) constructs was developed and administered to 112 NNSs of English (L1 Chinese) and 31 English NSs, along with vocabulary knowledge and (NNSs only) general proficiency tests. Data cleaning showed inherent, operationalisation problems. Exploratory Factor Analysis revealed four metaphor-related factors, with MANOVA and independent samples t-tests showing statistical NNS and NS differences for only one of these: English Grammatical Metaphoric Competence. Multiple regression revealed that the Oxford Online Placement Test best predicted L2 receptive MC, whereas L2 vocabulary depth measured by the Word Associates Test (Read, 1998) best predicted L2 productive MC. Time spent living in the UK had no predictive power, and the receptive/productive correlation weakened with increased L2 proficiency. Implications for theory, test development, the transferability of models and predictors (e.g., to NNSs with other L1s) and EFL teaching are discussed.

This study reports on the use of two types of technology in collaborative writing in English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms in Indonesia: e-collaborative computer assisted language learning (CALL) and e-resources CALL. In particular, it investigates: 1) teachers’ and pupils’ perceptions of collaborative writing; 2) teachers’ and pupils’ perceptions of technology use in EFL collaborative writing; and 3) the effects on pupils’ writing achievements of the two types of technology integration in EFL collaborative writing. This study employed a mixed methods approach. Six teachers and 192 pupils from six schools participated in this study, were selected using two sampling strategies, purposive and random cluster sampling. They were assigned to three research groups: an experiment group that undertook EFL collaborative writing with access to e-collaborative CALL, an active control group that used e-resources CALL, and a passive control group that had no access to technology. Interviews with teachers and focus group interviews with pupils were conducted to investigate their perceptions of collaborative writing and technology use in EFL collaborative writing. These qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis. In addition, writing tests were given to the pupils before and after an intervention to evaluate the effect of technology use on pupils’ writing achievements. Non-parametric tests were carried out to analyse these quantitative data.

The main aim of the study was to explore the instructional planning of Teaching English as Second Language (TESL) pre-service teachers (PSTs) in Malaysia. The three research questions used for this research were: (1) How do TESL PSTs plan for their lessons? (2) How do TESL PSTs make their interactive decisions (IDs)? (3) How can TESL pre-service teachers' post-lesson reflections be described? Five TESL PSTs were involved in the data collection process. The PSTs were observed three times, over the course of their 12-week teaching practicum around Malaysian public secondary schools in the city of Shah Alam, Malaysia. For each lesson observation, an open-ended questionnaire was distributed, the lesson plan was collected, classroom observation was done, followed by a post-lesson interview. Planning was mostly influenced by their previous experience, knowledge of students, level of self-efficacy, teaching beliefs, and the role of their mentor. Five practices that were common among the PSTs when they make their IDs are referring to their previous experience, using punitive actions, managing their expectations as well as being flexible and immediate when responding to classroom issues. Their reflections on the lessons appear to be done on different levels, depending on how they perceive the criticality of any incidents that occurred in the lesson. The findings also suggest that the PSTs were able to reflect on their experience and use these reflections in planning their subsequent lessons. However, the inconsistencies shown warrant further research on how these PSTs could be further supported in planning their lessons. The main conclusion that could be drawn from the study was that despite some criticisms on the PSTs' ability to reflect on their lessons, there is potential among these PSTs to reflect and to utilize these reflections further in planning their subsequent lessons, provided they are given appropriate and pragmatic support by the teacher training community in order for them to plan more effective lessons.

This thesis examines the purpose and practice of Omani higher education from the perspective of education providers in the field. Specifically, this research examines the tensions and confusion among academics, administrators and policy makers and how they view the provision of the English language curriculum at undergraduate level. The literature seems to indicate that, despite the significant advancement evidenced in the recent reforms, there remain unresolved tensions concerning the provision of higher education. To the best knowledge of the researcher, there is little or no empirical evidence of how these tensions might be played out 'on the ground' among people who are currently involved in higher education in Oman. Employing an interpretive paradigm as a methodological approach, this thesis engages with Clark’s (1987) philosophical framework. This framework highlights three curriculum philosophies, namely: classical humanism, reconstructionism and progressivism, which potentially conflict with each other. Through the content analysis of interviews and documents, the thesis shows stakeholders’ thinking about the ELT curriculum in terms of school mission, curriculum aim, knowledge, learning, the role of teacher, the role of student and assessment. It also explores the process of curriculum planning and the role of policy documents. The research shows how the provision of higher education has been interpreted and implemented at the institutional level. It shows how higher education reforms are viewed and how these reforms are affecting the provision in higher education. The study has found that there are tensions and muddles on the ground, as various interpretations of curriculum are brought to bear by different stakeholders. The study shows that there are contradictions in the stakeholders’ way of thinking about the purpose and practice of the English language curriculum. More interestingly and importantly, these tensions are evident not only among the groups of stakeholders but also within individuals, based own their educational beliefs and backgrounds. The study aims to contribute to the existing theoretical knowledge on the purpose and practice of higher education in general and English language curricula in particular in respect to the undergraduate level. It also intends to inform policy makers, curriculum specialists and teachers of the existing practices and issues in the Omani higher education.

The objective of this research is to explore dropout and persistence in academic elitism within a higher education system under policies of expansion. This case study employs an interpretative methodology to examine the phenomenon from the perspective of students and academics. The analysis is framed under known models of student retention with the added scope of Putnam’s concept of social capital, and Bourdieu’s concepts of academic capital, habitus, doxa, hysteresis and symbolic violence. Research questions explore why students leave the course, how they overcome barriers to completion and the process of gaining membership of academic elitism. Findings unveil a hidden doxa of selectivity that aims at the retention of the naturally talented and best-fit students. Practices of symbolic violence are observed throughout the course. The marginalisation of disadvantaged students is legitimised by the habitus of the School through the imposition of the characteristics necessary to earn membership of academic elitism. Distancing practices among students and faculty hinder the development of social capital, a key element to gain access to academic and emotional support needed to build academic capital of relevance to the field. The doxa of academic elitism is internalised and approached by means of academic buoyancy and resilience. Family facilitates availability of time as a fundamental resource to be invested in academic activities, and peers and family are the source of encouragement and support to help students sustain a fragile self-concept of achievement, and intentions to persist despite marginalisation practices faced. The lack of support and the pedagogic practices observed in the course represent a failure trap experienced with a sense of personal deficit. Leaving the course is not only explained in terms of student characteristics, but in terms of limited opportunities to succeed in a course that represents a gateway to positions of prestige and power in society.

The main purpose of this longitudinal mixed methods study is to investigate teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction beliefs in Oman, from the perspective of novice and experienced English language teachers in a college of technology. The study also investigates patterns of changes in teachers’ self-efficacy (TSE) and satisfaction (JS). Using a short-term longitudinal study, five online diary surveys were filled by 84 teachers in the course of one semester. Data were collected quantitatively and qualitatively using validated measures of teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction. This study revealed non-significant change in TSE and JS over time. Differences in TSE and JS beliefs were observed between teachers with 1 to 3 and teachers with more than 21 years of teaching experience, specifically in selecting what strategies to employ in their teaching. The qualitative findings showed that teachers with high self-efficacy had the ability to select the right instructional strategies, maintain control in the class, emphasize students’ willingness to take responsibility for their learning; were highly engaged; and ensured teacher-student relationships existed and maintained. Additionally, teachers’ satisfaction was mainly affected by their sense of achievement and workplace environment. Bandura’s self-efficacy theory suggests that self-efficacy may be malleable early in learning and, therefore, this indicates that if teacher self-efficacy is well established early on in the teaching career, a strong long-term sense of efficacy can be developed. In-service training and staff development programs can be the solution to strengthen teachers’ belief in their abilities, as the qualitative results suggested. A student engagement scale (ESS) was created in order to explore links with teachers’ self-efficacy. Data were collected from students whose teachers participated in the online diaries (n=838). The ESS was found to be reliable (α =.87). A non-significant relationship between students’ perception of their engagement and their teachers’ beliefs in engaging them was reported.

This study examines the attitudes and practices in the teaching of reading English within the specific context of Libya. The aims were: (1) to investigate the time allocated to teach reading in an English lesson, (2) to find out whether teachers differed in their reading practices according to their grade groups, (3) to explore teachers’ attitudes towards their teaching of reading in English, (4) to explore teachers’ attitudes towards the different reading strategies, (5) to explore teachers’ thoughts towards the use of different teaching techniques, (6) to find out if these teachers differed in their attitudes, reading strategies and techniques of reading according to grade. A mixed methods non-experimental research design was used combining a questionnaire, systematic observations and stimulated recall interviews. In the quantitative systematic observation, 34 teachers in grades 5 (i.e., teaching children aged eleven) and 7 (i.e., teaching children aged thirteen) were observed. The grade 5 learners had been exposed to no hours of English education prior to this study, while grade 7 learners had been exposed to the language for around two years. Descriptive statistics and chi-square of the quantitative systematic observation, using SPSS, revealed that teachers spent less time teaching reading techniques and encouraging the use of reading strategies than they did teaching things other than reading. Interestingly, there was no statistically significant difference between grades. The findings further suggested that the development of EFL sounds links (through systematic phonics instruction) was almost absent and that the teachers preferred to teach reading through alphabetic knowledge decoding skills. Moreover, thematic analysis of the qualitative data with NVivo identified that teachers in both grades used a variety of techniques for teaching reading and some specific reading strategies. Factor analysis of the questionnaire data, using SPSS, identified nine factors. The questionnaire results revealed that Libyan teachers of both fifth and seventh grades displayed similar positive attitudes towards teaching reading. The study concluded with some implications that can inform teachers’ practices in Libyan EFL classrooms.

The main question and purpose of this study was to pinpoint a sustainable method on developing an evaluation checklist for teaching materials in the English language programmes. The answer of the main question is rejoined through three sub-questions about the sources for the checklist, identifying the design guidelines and offering a validation method for the developed checklist. Design-based research methodology was utilized through three main phases: analysis and exploration, design and construction and evaluation and reflection where the last phase comprised cycles of formative review of the developed checklist. The participants were purposefully sampled from the six Colleges of Applied Sciences in Oman and other higher education institutions. A report is written after each cycle of formative review (expert review, one –to-one, small group, and field testing) with the recommended changes which led to four revisions and redesigns of the checklist prototype. The results of this study were fourfold. First, a conceptual framework was designed that can be used to develop checklists for the evaluation of teaching materials in the English language programmes. Second, a verified checklist is developed that can be used as both an evaluation & selection instrument as well as a professional development tool. Third, formative review is perceived to be a powerful validation tool for reviewing the developed teaching materials evaluation checklists. Finally, guidelines on how to develop teaching materials evaluation checklists are yielded through the different phases of this study. The use of design-based research facilitated the design and the assessment of the checklist which indicates the necessity of such methodology in the complicated educational milieus with its focus on research, design and setting in unison. Besides the practical results, findings comprised adding new visualization of sources, content and use of teaching materials evaluation checklists. It is concluded that teaching materials evaluation is the main contributor to the students’ progression, the practitioners’ professional development and the success of the English language programmes as a whole.

English and Chinese are typologically different in the composition of Multi-Verb Constructions (MVCs), which refer to a series of verbs appearing in a mono-clause, without pauses or conjunctions. English MVCs contain a finite verb which inflects with tense, combined with non-finite forms (e.g., The boss encouraged Jerry to attend the meeting). Chinese MVCs are in the form of bare verbs or verbs with aspectual morphemes (e.g., lǎobǎn gǔlì jié lǐ cānjiā huìyì, “boss encourage Jerry attend meeting”). This dissertation aims to explore whether and how these cross-linguistic differences influence L2 acquisition and processing. The results of the present research showed evidence of both morphological transfer of using bare verbs, and syntactic transfer of over-inflecting non-finite verbs in Chinese ESL (English as Second Language) learners’ written production. Further cross-linguistic evidence was found in their online lack of sensitivity to over-inflected non-finite verbs in self-paced-reading tasks, which was more prominent in learners of lower L2 proficiency. In contrast, no L1 influence was found in their explicit knowledge of finite and non-finite distinctions as tested via grammaticality judgment tasks. In the bidirectional study using the same research methods, the syntactic transfer occurred in the form of mis-positioned aspectual markers. It appears that English CSL (Chinese as Second Language) learners tended to equate the aspectual marker to the tense marker and to, therefore, comprehend the multiple verbs in Chinese MVCs in accordance with the cue of finite and non-finite distinctions as they would in their L1, English. They were also less sensitive to various salient lexical cues in interpreting the interrelations of the multiple verbs.

This thesis presents a mixed-methods study on Malaysian undergraduate students' willingness to communicate (WTC) in English on campus. WTC is now a significant issue in second language acquisition (SLA) field as creating willing second language (L2) communicators is regarded as a necessary component of successful L2 instruction. Thus, much research has been conducted to investigate WTC, especially in non-Western contexts, where the heuristic L2 WTC model (MacIntyre, Dörnyei, Clément, & Noels, 1998) has been complemented by various models that incorporate explicit cultural perspectives, such as the models by Wen and Clément (2003) and Peng (2014). However, these models are drawn based on the monolithic idea of east versus west, instead of a pluralistic view, and, as such, might not have explanatory power in an Eastern multi-cultural society such as Malaysia. The present study acknowledges this gap in research on L2 WTC in plural societies and seeks to address three key issues associated with L2 WTC in Malaysia. First, there is a need to develop and validate an instrument to examine L2 WTC in a plural society context because L2 WTC is contextually related. Second, it is essential to develop a statistical model of L2 WTC in a plural society to explore the interrelationship between psychological and socio-cultural factors that are likely to influence it. Third, it is crucial to understand learners' perspectives at the individual level through adopting a sociological approach. This study addresses the above issues by developing and validating a plural society willingness to communicate (PSWTC) questionnaire; examining the interrelationship between WTC, psychological, and socio-cultural variables using structural equation modelling on data collected via a large-scale survey; and complementing and expanding the results through semi-structured interviews analysed using thematic analysis. There are two main findings of the study which provide grounds for the proposition of an identity-based motivation model of L2 WTC in a plural society. First, learners' L2 WTC preferences are strongly mediated by the campus context. Evidence shows that learners' L2 WTC on campus fluctuates according to interlocutors' proficiency levels and ethnicities. Second, learners' investment in communicating in English on campus is highly influenced by their self-determination level.