Recently interest has focussed on Witkin's notion of cognitive style (Goodeneough 1978, Donaldson 1982, Messick 1982). Witkin's development of differentiation theory arose from studies concerning the way people orientate their bodies in space and is closely related to the individual's perceptual ability. Field-dependence/field-independence theory is primarily concerned with how people deal with information about the world rather than with how much or how well they do so (Goodenough 1978). Links (Case and Pascual-Leone 1975, Satterly 1979, Huteau 1980) were cited between the work of Piaget and Witkin. Goodenough (1978) wrote that the field-dependence dimension could be identified in problem-solving situations that seemed to require re-structuring. Some of the best illustrations of re-structuring problems come from the work of Piaget. As perceptual demands and materials of Piagetian conservation tasks and characteristics of Witkin's field-dependence/field-independence notion seemed well related it was hypothesised that a relationship might exist between children's performances on Piagetian tasks and their responses to Witkin measures of cognitive style. The study was of a longitudinal design. Four consecutive testing situations at three month intervals aimed to compare children's (N = 65) performance on a battery of six Piagetian conservation tasks (two each of length, area and horizontal/vertical frames of reference) with these same six-seven year old children's scores for two Witkin measures of field-dependence, the Children's Embedded Figures Test (CEFT) and the Draw-a-Figure Test (DAF). As field-dependent subjects are thought to respond to, and process more easily, information presented them in a social or personal manner, one Piagetian task of each of the three areas, length, area and horizontal/vertical frames of reference, was presented in a 'social' manner while the other was administered in an 'impersonal' or abstract manner reported by Witkin et al (1974) as more easily accomplished by field-independent persons. Results of the study gave some limited support to the hypothesis that a relationship might exist between children's performances on Piagetian tasks and their responses to Witkin's Children's Embedded Figures Test. It was also apparent that a majority of children, whether field-dependent or field-independent, were more successful in accomplishing the Piagetian tasks presented in a 'social' manner than they were at accomplishing those presented in an 'impersonal' fashion. Further, the two Witkin measures of cognitive style (CEFT and DAF) did not correlate. Vernon (1972), Bawd (1975) and Satterly' (1976) also have not found agreement between these two Witkin measures of field-dependence. The implications of the study call attention to the complexity of factors which contribute to the teaching/learning situation and of the need for further work relating style or method of presentation to the content of the material.

The failure of some pupils, especially those of working class or origin, to achieve' in schools has been the dominant focus for British sociology of education over much of its history. However, despite the wide range 'of alternative explanations proposed, little or no attention has been given to the demands made on pupils if they are to 'succeed' in school. The present study explores what pupils must do if' they are to display 'intelligence' in the course of classroom interaction. It does this through the examination of classroom process in one, rather 'peculiar', school.

This thesis develops arguments relevant to learning in informal environments about the nature of the activity, interaction and collaboration that emerge in young children (ages 4-12) at specific interactive exhibits in informal learning institutions. Using video recordings of children's activity at ten different interactive exhibits as principal data, this thesis seeks to unpack the notion that children are merely 'just playing' with, at and around the exhibits - or, put differently, it aims to specify the activity behind 'interactivity'. In so doing, it explores the ways in which the diverse forms of social interaction occurring at the exhibit face contribute to and might enable the emergence of specific forms of activity. A case is made for the use of two distinct analytic methods in order to address, firstly, what behaviours are displayed by young children at the exhibits studied, and then, how and why aspects of those behaviours emerge in the particular manner in which they do. Sources from education, cognitive development and developmental psychology are used in the development of a theoretically and empirically driven coding schema that is applied systematically to the video data to begin to address 'what' behaviours are displayed - the first question. Subsequently, building on an interactional perspective that gives primacy to the pervasive nature of the contributions of others - to social interaction - the 'how' and 'why', or second questions are addressed. To this end, an analysis that draws on ethnomethodology and conversation analysis is used to explore the role of observation and imitation in the children's activity at the exhibit face. The final chapter reflects upon the observations and findings of the whole study to consider their implications for potential learning at and the design of interactive exhibits. It explores the extent to which the design of exhibits might enable particular forms of activity and co-participation, and puts forth design sensitivities for exhibit designers to consider. It offers a critique of the two analytic methods and their potential utility for future research. And, finally, it seeks to show that when children's activity at exhibits is analysed in detail, children who are seen to be 'just playing' are indeed engaged in a range of productive actions and interactions.

This is a qualitative study into university teachers’ responses to e-learning technology (eLT), situated within the debate about how greater use of eLT might affect universities’ role in Society. The context is the increased use of eLT in Higher Education and its promotion by various stakeholders. Its effect on students has been well researched but less may be found relating to teachers. The movement may therefore be insufficiently informed about eLT’s effect on university teachers, leading to potentially negative consequences. My methodology, inspired by Kvale’s traveller/researcher metaphor, is based on interviews and thematic analyses of their transcripts. Participants’ reactions to the technologies they use are explored in semi-structured, in-depth interviews where the interviewees describe their feelings on a range of issues related to their use of eLT. Through these conversations I find that, whilst most of the interviewees see themselves as technophiles, they are nonetheless experiencing issues which could adversely affect their teaching. I group these into three themes: control, privacy and knowledge ownership and explore how they may be interrelated through underlying ‘meta-themes’ related to teachers’ feelings of identity and trust. I also discover that many of these feelings are not overt, even to the teachers concerned, but only become apparent in certain circumstances. The implications are that critical decisions about technology and teachers’ wellbeing, if taken only on the strength of surveys or structured interviews, may be ill founded and lead to unwelcome consequences. I conclude that teachers’ responses to eLT need to be understood from a plural perspective, including considerations of trust and identity, if eLT-based practices are to be successfully introduced into Higher Education. If teachers lose their trust (in their students, management or peers) and question their professional identity, their ability to give of their best to their teaching may suffer, with potentially detrimental effects on the sector.

Blueskies University is a top UK institution: an old university, very prestigious, and a strong brand. As others it changed doctoral degree programmes in compliance with the Roberts Report, the QAA guidelines for research degrees, and the Joint Statement of the Skills training requirements for research students. These brought the importance of transferable skills to the fore. Universities should prepare students for life outside academia where research skills gained throughout the PhD may not be enough. A strong emphasis on completion deadlines is also affecting the structure of doctoral programmes. In this process the main PhD actors – supervisors and doctoral students – have not been heard. This thesis aims at giving voice to these two cohorts. Therefore I conducted 40 in-depth interviews in different Social Sciences departments at Blueskies University. The PhD experience as well as individual conceptions of the PhD were the main axes of my study. This research concludes that whereas the official skills discourse was widely perceived as being of little value, the views on the 3-4 years deadline were diverse. For the students, many of them gone over the deadline, this was of little relevance. However, supervisors were divided: some thought the deadline was a good thing. Students would have time for creative research throughout their academic career. Others voiced the concern that original thinkers were being rejected from PhD programmes for fears that their research could take longer. This thesis suggests that, for universities such as Blueskies University, the PhD may be losing its intrinsic value which conceives knowledge as an end in itself, and is being chosen for its extrinsic value, that of a passport to academia. It posits that the nature of social research is changing and therefore disciplines are changing too. Finally, the thesis questions whether universities are preparing intellectuals or efficient researchers.

This autobiographically-derived, and narratively-voiced, thesis is one teacher's story. From the story a spiritualizing model of education is argued, toward making a paradigm shift. The suggested shift involves placing 'technical' learning within the context of being and becoming fully, and positively, human. Teaching then becomes a matter of enabling development of the individual's Caring, Creative and Critical abilities, developed within the Community (the 4Cs), inspired by the light of higher-order values - the remainder being processes and content. The thesis makes an original contribution to educational knowledge through the educational life-story, and through making explicit a model out of that life-experience. The suggested model of spiritualizing pedagogy, called SunWALK, therefore is grounded in accounts of the writer's major educational life-events. In particular it presents epiphanous encounters undergone in meeting three 'discourse-communities': the Baha'i Faith, the teaching of English, and Philosophy for Children. These are seen as providing the three intrapersonal 'voices' of human engagement, Caring, Creativity and Criticality, which correspondingly have three ways of knowing: the 'social-others-centred', the 'subjective-creative-mystical' and the 'objective-reasoning-scientific'. A fourth discourse-community, that of holistic education, is the educational subdomain to situate the thesis. A conceptual framework for the model is outlined, using concepts gleaned from the four discourse-communities. A view of 'the Whole', and of heart-knowing, is presented, to counter-balance the conceptual. Heartknowing, the 'subjective-creative-mystical', is seen as an innate, intuitive way of knowing, c.t. the methods of the 'objective-reasoning-scientific'. The third form, i.e. social knowing, is seen as deriving from the cultural interpersonal matrix of family and community relationships - internalized as Caring. . The conceptual and heart-knowing are brought together, via a 'conceptual-contemplative-conceptual' cyclical approach, using a 'Mandala Diagram'. The idea of 'Dialectical Spiritualization' is developed, as that which the four 'Cs' have in common. A summary and diagram, and evaluation, conclude the thesis.

The last decade has witnessed major changes in British doctoral education. The emergence of professional and practice-based doctorates in particular, are beginning to prompt broad questions concerning the purposes, processes and products of graduate study. A growing diversity of doctoral provision is coupled with a disparate student population. For doctorates to evolve in a responsive manner, the complexity of provision and need must be understood. This work provides new insights into these changes by specifically focusing on the perspectives of students and graduates; something relatively unexplored. The perceptions and experiences of 217 students and graduates from different types of doctorates at 4 institutions were examined through postal questionnaires and follow-up semi-structured interviews. Interviews were also conducted with 8 supervisors from each institution and 9 employers, to provide a snapshot of understanding in relation to students' views. Results suggest that motivation varies with age. Younger students were more driven by the prospect of career enhancement and the development of research techniques, whereas older students gave more credence to personal development. Noticeable agreement was found over those resources that were regarded as both important and unimportant and all students considered both independence and collaboration important ways of working during a doctorate. Students' concepts of a doctorate and their understanding of doctoral capability did not seem to recognise the complexity and transferability of skills. The views of supervisors and employers varied in important respects from those of the students. These findings are discussed and their political, institutional and methodological implications are explored. It is recommended that further work concentrates on exploring the perspectives of employers to continue enriching the understanding of doctoral education.

This thesis is a study of officer training on the Egyptian army in a time of rapid and fundamental change. It attempts to examine the extent to which recent developments in military technology have created the pressures on the Egyptian army to reform and modernise the training programmes at the Military Academy. It also examines the influence of social and cultural factors on the form and content of the training programmes and their effects on the philosophy of those responsible for the reforms. These issues are examined on a comparative basis with the British system. The British army provides a good comparative base for the study for many reasons. Among them is that it is equipped with the most modern weapon Systems and enjoys a reputation as one of the most professional armies in the world. It is a useful point of reference, particularly with the adopting of new Western weapon Systems by the Egyptian army. it should be emphasised that the intention here is not to assess or evaluate the British system against the Egyptian system, where the environment is both materially and culturally different. The purpose of the study of the British system is to help to clarify and diagnose the Egyptian system. With Egypt as the main focus of study, the thesis attempts to examine the army elite structure both within the context of the Egyptian society and in a comparative basis with the British army élite. This has been established through an examination of social, economic and educational factors against their historical background in order to locate their positions on the map of stratification and power in the Egyptian society and also to identify their policy towards recruitment and training. In Egypt the main influence on military élite ideology is likely to come from its own organisational necessities, including national development needs and the necessity of using modem technology as a means for reform in establishing a modem army. This creates the need to provide the full amount of education and training to the student cadets at the Military Academy before they are commissioned. Undergraduate university degree programmes in administration and engineering sciences for four and five years respectively have been created to meet this requirement. Great emphasis is placed on intellectual developments for assimilation and general level of education, which are useful for national service projects, rather than on the military application side. In the UK the thesis demonstrates that the military élite established its own ideology based on its own social structure and professional experience. The courses are of short duration, the cadet has to attend non-university graduate programmes for eleven months, and an adequate level of education of the new entrant is assumed. The programmes at Sandhurst are directed to support specific military skills based on professionalism and traditionalism rather than on development of new trends as undergraduate degree programmes are. This conception has fostered the traditional type of leadership. The implicit assumption has been that the real professional education of an officer begins after his being commissioned, in his practical experience and in the specialised schools of the British army. Technical areas are now separated off from the military technology course and taught at Shrivenham after students have been commissioned. The field work for the study examined the content of the training programmes, interviewed those responsible for the design and implementation of such programmes, and also, through the administering of questionnaires to cadets and serving officers, tested how far they felt their training needs had been met. The study demonstrates that technological change has not had identical influence on the two systems of training, since differences are due to social and cultural factors whose effects are not uniform in the two countries. The thesis also examines the extent to which recent developments in new technology have led to changes in the structure and processes of military organisations and to changes in the content of programmes concerned with leadership training. It identifies the specific military skills required by technologically advances military organisations, especially leadership and technical skills. It is argued that this analysis should persuade those at the top level of command in military organisations of the need for restructuring of military hierarchies, especially with respect to levels of authority and decision-making at the lower level of command in military organisations. However, major shifts need to take place in attitudes and philosophy towards what is required today in training future officers. Such shifts in the attitudes and philosophy of those who hold power would make a substantial contribution to the development of those new skills which army officers need to deal with the complexities of modem warfare.

This, study seeks to offer a sociological account of the emergence of non university technical education and its development In England in the period 1850-1910. The aim is to show that an explanation of the origin of the form and content of technical education needs to extend beyond changes In 19th century educational policies. An attempt is made therefore to trace the relationship between changes in control of the labour process as exemplified In one of the leading manufacturing industries, mechanical engineering, and developments in technical education. The argument is twofold: The forces underlying the substitution of unskilled for skilled workers and the implementation of new kinds of machines, were also those at work in the demise of the apprenticeship system and the development of a certain form of technical education. The skilled engineering workers' struggles to maintain the apprenticeship system against the employers' reluctance to support it, may be seen as also part of an explanation of the origin and development of technical education The importance of employers and skilled workers in these processes is acknowledged thereby, and a case Is argued, which existing sociological and historical accounts neglect, that the conflictual nature of the social relations of the industry represented an industrial struggle against which plans for a technical education system were being formulated. A key element is the analysis of the Great Strike and Lock-Out of 1897/1898, which is seen as the culmination of a series of conflicts originating in the 1850s. The outcome of the strike confirmed the economic 'short-termism' of employers, deriving from the dominant laissez faire doctrines of the period. Contradictions Inherent In short-term profit seeking at the level of individual employers and expectations from long term projections for a system of technical education at a national level, not only crucially influenced educational legislation, but fostered a neglect of technical education provision.

The purpose of this research study was to explore organisational innovation in education with reference to one particular type of organisation - the tertiary college. The research sought to examine the extent to which the intended objectives for new educational organisations are realised in practice, and how far the goals and ethos which organisational leaders seek to promote are shared by organisational members. The study focused on eleven tertiary colleges, comparing the 'official' view of the colleges, as put forward by senior managers, with the perspectives of staff and students. Tertiary colleges are responsible for all or most full and part time non-advanced education for the post-16 age group in the areas which they serve (some also have some advanced work). The colleges thus combine all provision which elsewhere is separately administered in school sixth forms, sixth form colleges and further education colleges. The literature review draws on concepts from organisation theory, and discusses various models for analysing organisations and their goals: rational system and formal models, and three alternative approaches - political, ambiguity and subjective models. Rational system and formal models are dominant in the organisational literature. They focus on the official aspects of organisations rather than the perspectives of members. The review then explores the role of structure and culture in the pursuit of organisational goals, the extent to which organisations have a shared culture or ethos, and the factors contributing to successful change in educational institutions. The study examined four main issues : (1) To what extent are the goals set out by institutional leaders shared by other members of the organisation? (2) How far do new structures influence perspectives and attitudes? (3) To what extent are new types of organisation able to develop a distinctive culture and ethos? (4) Are there major differences between individual organisations of the same type? Evidence to explore these issues was gathered by means of interviews with principals and vice-principals; analysis of college documents: and questionnaire surveys of staff and full and part-time students. It was found that organisational members - staff and students - shared the official view of the colleges' goals and ethos to some extent. However, there were a number of mismatches and disparities between the official perspective and the views of members, and an 'implementation gap' (Becher, 1989), between goals as ideals and goals as enacted. There was also evidence of cultural differentiation, rather than the integrationist culture portrayed by the principals. There were considerable subgroup differences in members' perspectives and in the extent to which they shared the goals and ethos of their colleges. There were also wide inter-college disparities in staff and student views. The study indicates that organisational goals impact differentially on various member subgroups, and that organisations sharing similar purposes may achieve these purposes to widely differing degrees. The analysis suggests that formal and rational system models of organisations are inadequate for understanding organisational change. It is necessary to draw on alternative perspectives to interpret the 'competing realities' (Greenfield, 1973) and 'less-than-rational' (Hoyle, 1986) aspects of organisational life. The study focused on internal aspects of the tertiary colleges, but there was evidence that external factors may have influenced their goals and development. The conclusion therefore considers the broader policy context for the development of the tertiary colleges, as compared with other new types of organisation - City Technology Colleges and grant-maintained schools. It is suggested that 'new institutionalist' ideas, which portray the environment as having a central influence on organisational development, may provide a useful framework for reinterpreting the findings of the study. New institutionalist concepts provide an important corrective to the assumptions of rational system and formal models that organisations have a relatively high degree of autonomy in establishing and pursuing internally-generated goals