Child sexual abuse is a widespread social problem found to be associated with detrimental outcomes in both the short and long term. Efforts by researchers to develop comprehensive understandings of the factors and processes associated with abuse occurrence and outcome have been hampered by a lack of consensus across theory and epistemology. The complexity of the problem has also meant that few studies have attempted to examine risk factors for the occurrence of child sexual abuse simultaneously with outcomes. Attending to this observed gap in the literature, this thesis examined the relationship between factors specific to children, their families and social environments, and the occurrence and outcomes of child sexual abuse for participants in an Australian prospective longitudinal cohort study. Guided by a conceptual framework based on concepts from developmental psychopathology, ecological theory and the ‘Integrated Risk-Sequelae’ model of child maltreatment (Higgins & McCabe, 1994), the thesis investigated the hypothesis that sexually abused and non-abused children differ significantly across child, family and environmental factors, and that these differences in context synergistically influence both the occurrence and outcome of child sexual abuse. To clarify these relationships, the study assessed the relative influence of sexual abuse and contextual factors upon child outcomes by exploring the potential of sexual abuse to affect outcomes through both direct and indirect pathways. The data source for the study (de-identified survey data with linked child protection information) provided a unique life course perspective on the experiences of sexually abused children, and in contrast to other studies, enabled a wide range of contextual factors to be investigated as potential risk factors for the occurrence of child sexual abuse and its outcome or sequelae over time. The study finds that when compared to their non-abused counterparts, sexually abused children experience greater vulnerability and disadvantage across multiple aspects and phases of their life. While mothers of sexually abused children report significantly higher rates of child problems when compared to mothers of non-abused children, no significant differences exist between sexually abused and non-abused children’s self report of social, emotional and behavioural outcomes. Examination of the relationship between contextual factors and sexual abuse confirm the hypothesis that observed differences between the contextual domains of sexually abused and non-abused children are associated with increased risk for both the occurrence and outcome of child sexual abuse. Assessment of the relative influence of sexual abuse and contextual factors upon maternal and child self-reported outcomes for all children, finds that when the effect of contextual factors is taken into account, sexual abuse does not make a significant contribution to report of child health outcomes. Exploration of the potential for sexual abuse to affect outcomes through indirect pathways finds little support for the presence or operation of moderation or confounding effects, but does find considerable support for the proposition that contextual factors mediate the relation between sexual abuse maternal reports of child outcome. This thesis also finds that factors specific to the sexual abuse experience are significantly associated with sexually abused children’s self-reported outcomes even when the effects of contextual factors are considered. This effect does not hold for maternal report of child outcomes, suggesting that while contextual factors exert a strong influence on maternal-reported outcomes, characteristics of the sexual abuse experience, rather than the sexual abuse itself, may be an important influence on sexually abused children’s self reported outcomes. Collectively, the findings of this thesis suggest that the occurrence and outcomes of child sexual abuse exist as a function of multiple factors that operate via dynamic processes or mechanisms over time. The study is unique in the Australian context and makes several important findings that add to the knowledge base for child sexual abuse.

The primary goal of this thesis is to consider probation practice and the contribution of leadership to the achievement of effective service delivery in the New Zealand Community Probation Service during a period of major change. In relation to this goal, the objectives are: (a) to explore Probation Officers' and Service Managers' understandings of the political and managerial changes affecting the New Zealand Probation Service; (b) to ascertain Probation Officers' and Service Managers' views of probation values, knowledge, skills and practice; (c) to understand Probation Officers' and Service Managers' views of the assessment of service delivery; (d) to identify how Probation Officers and Service Managers define and what they understand by the concepts of leadership and effective service delivery; (e) to examine how the relationship between leadership and effective service delivery is perceived and acted upon by Probation Officers and Service Managers; and (f) to determine the structures and processes that are necessary to maximise the contribution of leadership to the achievement of effective service delivery. The research participants comprised a purposeful sample of 27 Probation Officers and 8 Service Managers (front-line staff involved in service delivery) recruited from among those employed in the northern and southern administrative regions of the Probation Service. Qualitative data were collected via personal in-depth interviews and augmented by focus group discussions. The key findings of the study are that: first, effective service delivery was not perceived to be limited to the reduction of recidivism alone, but to also include the client's broader social experience, recognising that positive social benefit can extend beyond the simple measurement of offending behaviour. second, leaders must be seen to be credible if they are to create willing followers. This credibility rested upon the leader's possession of relevant practice knowledge and skills, their demonstrated commitment to professional practice, their ability to provide clear direction for practice and their ability to ensure that adequate resources are available to achieve service delivery goals; third, a positive association was drawn between a leader's professional experience, possession of personal power and ability to influence Probation Officer practice. In essence, the leader's experience and competence has a bearing upon confidence in the leader. Participants also posited a connection between positive leadership, the development of a 'team' culture, Probation Officer work performance and service delivery. Overall, the linkage between leadership and effective service delivery was conceived of as being dependent upon the ability of leaders to enhance the practice of Probation Officers. From this perspective, five leadership challenges for senior managers in the Probation Service were identified. These included the challenges to: (a) establish the professional foundations of probation practice; (b) develop a clearer, integrated statement of purpose, values and beliefs that identifies probation as a distinct area of professional practice; (c) develop probation practice in a flexible manner, incorporating international influences while remaining responsive to features and events that reflect the dynamic character of the local environment; (d) to ensure that the integrative structures, processes and new roles/positions necessary to underpin and support probation practice are introduced or implemented, notably for the provision of professional supervision; and (e) to introduce a multi-dimensional approach to the assessment of service delivery that includes both quantitative and qualitative indicators of aspects other than recidivism alone. It is acknowledged that these challenges have significant resource implications.

This thesis presents the construction of social work supervision from the perspectives of social work practitioners and supervisors. In particular, the research explored how social work supervision was constructed, the influence of the Aotearoa New Zealand context upon its construction, and where and how social work supervision can most effectively be improved. In order to provide a background for informed analysis and discussion of the research findings, key themes within the international and Aoteaoroa New Zealand supervision literature were discussed. The thesis was a mixed methods study that was informed by a constructionist conceptual framework with regard to the framing and exploration of the research questions. The methodological approach used was derived from pragmatism and involved a combination of survey research with qualitative individual interviews, with the survey being used to recruit and purposefully select participants for the individual interviews. The key findings from the study were: a) social work supervision was predominantly constructed from a professional standpoint, with the social, organisational and interpersonal context influencing how supervision was produced in any setting at anytime; b) the Aotearoa New Zealand context influenced supervision through the discourses of biculturalism and indigenous development, with multiculturalism being a secondary influence; and c) that improvements were needed in the professional and organisational systems that support supervision as well as in the practice and provision of it. The implications and recommendations arising from these findings focus on social work supervision theory and practice, cultural competence and the further development of professional supervision. From these implications it is suggested that the future research and development agenda for social work supervision both internationally and within Aotearoa New Zealand concerns theory-building, responding to the dynamics of culture and difference within supervision and the professionalisation of supervision. The recommendations related to the professionalisation of supervision concern: formal education and training; the role of supervision within organisations and contribution to organisational development; and the need for a stronger evidence-base regarding supervision’s contribution to client practice and social worker well-being and development.

This thesis presents the construction of social work supervision from the perspectives of social work practitioners and supervisors. In particular, the research explored how social work supervision was constructed, the influence of the Aotearoa New Zealand context upon its construction, and where and how social work supervision can most effectively be improved. In order to provide a background for informed analysis and discussion of the research findings, key themes within the international and Aoteaoroa New Zealand supervision literature were discussed. The thesis was a mixed methods study that was informed by a constructionist conceptual framework with regard to the framing and exploration of the research questions. The methodological approach used was derived from pragmatism and involved a combination of survey research with qualitative individual interviews, with the survey being used to recruit and purposefully select participants for the individual interviews. The key findings from the study were: a) social work supervision was predominantly constructed from a professional standpoint, with the social, organisational and interpersonal context influencing how supervision was produced in any setting at anytime; b) the Aotearoa New Zealand context influenced supervision through the discourses of biculturalism and indigenous development, with multiculturalism being a secondary influence; and c) that improvements were needed in the professional and organisational systems that support supervision as well as in the practice and provision of it. The implications and recommendations arising from these findings focus on social work supervision theory and practice, cultural competence and the further development of professional supervision. From these implications it is suggested that the future research and development agenda for social work supervision both internationally and within Aotearoa New Zealand concerns theory-building, responding to the dynamics of culture and difference within supervision and the professionalisation of supervision. The recommendations related to the professionalisation of supervision concern: formal education and training; the role of supervision within organisations and contribution to organisational development; and the need for a stronger evidence-base regarding supervision’s contribution to client practice and social worker well-being and development.

This thesis presents the construction of social work supervision from the perspectives of social work practitioners and supervisors. In particular, the research explored how social work supervision was constructed, the influence of the Aotearoa New Zealand context upon its construction, and where and how social work supervision can most effectively be improved. In order to provide a background for informed analysis and discussion of the research findings, key themes within the international and Aoteaoroa New Zealand supervision literature were discussed. The thesis was a mixed methods study that was informed by a constructionist conceptual framework with regard to the framing and exploration of the research questions. The methodological approach used was derived from pragmatism and involved a combination of survey research with qualitative individual interviews, with the survey being used to recruit and purposefully select participants for the individual interviews. The key findings from the study were: a) social work supervision was predominantly constructed from a professional standpoint, with the social, organisational and interpersonal context influencing how supervision was produced in any setting at anytime; b) the Aotearoa New Zealand context influenced supervision through the discourses of biculturalism and indigenous development, with multiculturalism being a secondary influence; and c) that improvements were needed in the professional and organisational systems that support supervision as well as in the practice and provision of it. The implications and recommendations arising from these findings focus on social work supervision theory and practice, cultural competence and the further development of professional supervision. From these implications it is suggested that the future research and development agenda for social work supervision both internationally and within Aotearoa New Zealand concerns theory-building, responding to the dynamics of culture and difference within supervision and the professionalisation of supervision. The recommendations related to the professionalisation of supervision concern: formal education and training; the role of supervision within organisations and contribution to organisational development; and the need for a stronger evidence-base regarding supervision’s contribution to client practice and social worker well-being and development.

This research explores what has been published in the print media on the topic of physical child abuse over an eight year period of time. The study encompasses news reports, feature articles, opinion columns and editorials written on the issue of physical child abuse in New Zealand from 2000 to 2007. Using inductive and exploratory research, qualitative data has been collected by capturing the voices from a range of media commentators and comparing these with data from newspaper articles and other sources of statistical data obtained from a statutory child protection agency, hospitals and police. The research looks at how physical child abuse is represented in the newspaper media and explores whether there are accuracies or deficiencies in this reporting that may impact on public perceptions of child abuse. In particular, the study explores whether what is being written in the newspaper is objective or whether there is an in-built ethnic or social bias in the reporting of child abuse. The findings of the three parts of the study are integrated and it is determined that there is a disproportionate reporting of child abuse based on a) the ethnicity of the child or perpetrator, b) the seriousness of the abuse, and c) the sensationalist nature of the incident of child abuse. Another significant finding is that media reflects and reinforces common views and perceptions of physical child abuse and that the public are exposed to only the “tip of the iceberg” in terms of accurate and balanced reporting. The report concludes with a discussion about whether the media affects or reflects the worldview of physical child abuse. A symbiotic model is proposed which uses voices from the writers themselves to support the argument that there is a bi-directional relationship between the media and the public.

This study explores Tongan social work practice and examines how social and community work is constructed from a Tongan worldview. Tongan social workers in Aotearoa New Zealand participated in individual interviews and focus group meetings which explored the Tongan values, knowledge, skills and processes foundational to their practice. The participants' narratives contribute to an understanding of Tongan conceptions of wellbeing, personal and social change and to an identification of key components of a Tongan theoretical framework for social and community work practice. This exploratory study contributes to the growing literature articulating indigenous and non-western frameworks for social and community work practice. Seeking to draw on a Tongan interpretive framework, the thesis employs metaphors, in particular two fishing practices (pola and uku), to draw the findings together. Pola, a community fishing practice, illustrates a Tongan social welfare system comprised of core values, namely: fetokoni'aki (mutual helpfulness), tauhi vā (looking after relationships), faka'apa'apa (respect) and 'ofa (love). Maintaining this Tongan system in the diaspora is central to the purpose of Tongan social and community work and the values themselves are a basis for practice. Other key concepts are shown to define a Tongan practice framework and these are identified as: fakafekau'aki (connecting), a'u tonu (going in person), lotu (spirituality/prayer/religion), fakatōkilalo (humility), fie'aonga (wanting to be useful), matakāinga (behaving like family) and 'osikiavelenga (doing utmost). The uku metaphor draws parallels to specialised practices of fishing or diving under the reef, around pupu'a puhi (blowholes). Similarly, Tongan social and community work involves specific processes which draw on a constellation of skills and values. Fakatoukatea (skills in opposite directions) is important for bridging Tongan and pālangi contexts, for working across various fields of practice and for adopting family-like roles as a social worker. Lea fakatonga (Tongan language), hua (humour)and feongo'i'aki (intuitive use of feelings) are important aspects of a Tongan social work approach. Tongan social and community work is located primarily within kāinga (extended family) and community. This location of social work reconstructs conventional conceptions of professionalism and relationships become a key force for change within a Tongan framework. A balance between a directive and empowerment approach needs to be achieved and an advocacy emphasis is required given the position of Tongans in the diaspora. This thesis demonstrates that a framework for social and community work derived from a Tongan worldview: provides new discourses and thinking within the critical postmodern tradition; is negotiated alongside other discourses thus creating spaces of possibility; is characterised by layers of ethnic specific, indigenous and humanity level differences and commonalities; emphasises the moral-artistic nature of social and community work; and challenges social work to be more diverse in terms of practice competencies, supervision, cross-cultural practice, education and community development. The thesis argues that if social and community work is to be transformative, it must itself be transformed and its very foundations reshaped by Tongan and other indigenous, non-western voices.

This thesis examines the potential use of a facilitated process of decolonisation, or whakawātea, amongst whānau whakapapa in Aotearoa. Ten kaimahi whānau of Ngāti Raukawa ki te Tonga, who have worked for many years in government, community, Māori and iwi social service agencies have shared their experiences of colonisation, racism, social work and decolonisation. Using a "from Māori, by Māori, with Māori, for Māori" research approach, their voices have been woven with the voices of other Māori and indigenous writers, to consider how a facilitated process of decolonisation, or whakawātea, could be used to assist whānau whakapapa to develop their own systems of support, based on the traditions, values, skills and beliefs of their tūpuna. Despite the positive development and wellbeing currently enjoyed by many whānau whakapapa, this study has developed in response to the disconnection from te ao Māori observed amongst many whānau whakapapa interacting with social service agencies. Colonisation has created loss of wairuatanga, kotahitanga and manaakitanga amongst many of these whānau whakapapa, and affected their ability to lead their own positive development and wellbeing. This study promotes a facilitated process of decolonisation, or whakawātea, as a means of reclaiming those values and strengthening whānaungatanga amongst whānau whakapapa. The process envisaged would enable whānau whakapapa to learn about the history of Aotearoa; hear the stories of their tūpuna; uncover their own truths, and exit the "Matrix" created by colonisation The Matrix, from the popular movie trilogy, is used in this study, as an analogy, and compares the computerised Matrix programme created by machines in the movies, with the "programme" created by the coloniser in Aotearoa. Within this programme, the traditions, values, skills and beliefs of the coloniser, dominate the traditions, values, skills and beliefs of tūpuna. This study argues that only through finding ways for all whānau whakapapa to exit the Matrix, will rangatiratanga be restored in Aotearoa.

This thesis examines the spirituality and participation in faith-based activities of young Catholics in Whangarei, New Zealand. Six youth aged 16-17 years have shared their experiences in several areas of Catholicism such as religious attendance, Catholic identity and Catholic faith, morals and values, peer group socialisation and religious commitment. Using a qualitative mixed-methodological approach with the underlying philosophical stance of interpretivism, the intent of the study is to discover ways in which these young Catholics integrate their faith into their daily lives and make meaning out of it. It also compares the religious beliefs and values of Catholic youth in Whangarei to those reported worldwide. The findings reveal many similar themes to those from international studies. Although all of the participants in this study possessed a distinct sense of ‘spirituality’ and being ‘Catholic’ was a very important part of their identity, not all of them seemed to consider it practical to live out their Catholic beliefs. Similarly, although they did not face any insurmountable challenges in practicing their faith in daily life, only a few of them had strong convictions about their faith and, like their peers in other countries, only a few could concretely list the core Catholic beliefs. Concepts of moralistic therapeutic deism were found to affect half the participants while nuances of moralistic relativism were also prevalent. Results also showed a growing disinterest in attending Mass, participating in the sacrament of Confession, leading an active prayer life, being a part of church youth activities and some difficulty in finding similar peer group support. Overall, the findings presented in this thesis suggested that the participants involved in the study could be separated into two groups on the basis of their differing spiritual levels and commitment to the Catholic faith The findings suggest a need for Catholic youth in Whangarei to be supported in their spiritual development in order to help them grow in their Catholic faith. Accordingly, the main recommendations are for community-based services such as providing a variety of youth programmes/groups to engage young people and finding ways to facilitate the secure engagement of youth in a dialogue about their faith and religion, in order to spiritually encourage, nourish and sustain them at whatever stage they might be at.

Since the profession of social work began, there has been debate about whether it should be involved in helping individuals make change, or in encouraging societal change. Towards gaining an understanding of how this debate has played out in Aotearoa New Zealand, this research explores the question “What are the past present and future perspectives on the role of counselling in social work in Aotearoa New Zealand?” A mixed methodology format was used in this research. Qualitative interviews with individuals who had helped create the professions of social work, counselling and psychology were conducted to help understand the historical development of counselling within social work, and the factors which had impacted upon it. Questionnaires were then sent out to 985 members of the Aotearoa New Zealand Association of Social Workers that asked about members’ current views on, and practice of, counselling within social work. The research shows that social work developed late in New Zealand within a welfare state where governments questioned the need for it. With social work education not widely available until the 1970s there was limited training in counselling type approaches. The drive for professionalism (often aligned with those doing counselling) was tempered by those mindful of community and bicultural commitments due to differing ideologies and lack of access to education. Tangata whenua have had a major impact on the development of social work, and counselling within it. Respondents in this research were clear that aspects of counselling fell within their definitions of social work and that counselling in Aotearoa New Zealand should hold a strengths-based, collaborative stance that recognised the importance of a bicultural perspective. Most respondents indicated that they did some amount of counselling within their practice, but only 34% of respondents felt that their basic social work qualification had prepared them adequately or really well for their counselling role. The majority of questionnaire respondents had undertaken additional training to help them with their counselling role and over two-thirds indicated a strong desire to engage in further study in counselling. Registration of the helping professions presents challenges that include the potential for unhelpful competition between them. The thesis concludes that there is a need for more counselling education options for social workers and that there is a need for the profession of social work to formally define its scopes of practice.