The primary aim of this dissertation is to determine whether women and men have differential access to discourse, where discourse is used to encompass both the semantic and structural features of the language as well as conditions for its use: the objective is to develop a theoretical model of women's and men's access to discourse and to examine its educational implications. The parameters for the model are set in part by attempting to locate discourse in the experience of women (in itself a novel approach and of methodological significance) where the concept of women's 'silence' is frequently invoked both in terms of the resources afforded by the language and the opportunities for interaction in a mixed sex context. The research areas of language structure and language use are reviewed but because their separation is not maintained by conceptual boundaries, among many women, an attempt is made to integrate them under the broad heading of women's silence. Because women and women's experience has also been omitted or neglected within these research areas the review of the literature also serves to illuminate many of the problems and dimensions of women's silence. The theoretical model of female and male access to discourse takes into account this experience of women's silence and it is corroborated by linguistic and non linguistic evidence. The educational implications of the model are many and varied but attention is paid to the way in which women's exclusion from educational discourse has had ramifications for the entire educational enterprise, from policy making to school organisation and curriculum materials. The 'silence' of women in past and present educational research is also examined. Documentation of classroom interaction in mixed sex schools also helps to suggest that female students have reduced opportunities for talk and minimal opportunities for introducing a female version of experience into many classrooms: in this way their 'silence' is fostered and would appear to be perpetuated. As fundamental questions arise about co-education when it is suggested that boys profit from mixed sex education, the introduction of co-education, and the reasons for it, are also investigated and again an interpretation which is consistent with the thesis of women's silence in a male dominated society emerges. Because one of the basic aims of this dissertation has been to generate helpful hypotheses in this relatively new and complex area, consideration has been given to possible alternatives and future directions for research in education and language.

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This research examines the role of critical reflection in learning theories and the relationship between Kolb's learning cycle and notions of the 'good' language learner, the deep approach to learning and autonomous learning in the context of adult, part-time, distance language learning. This group of learners is under-represented in the research literature. The research takes an exploratory-interpretative approach. Open University Language students had been invited by their tutors to use materials based on Kolb's learning cycle, designed to encourage critical reflection in order to enhance learning. In-depth interviews explored the experience of users and non-users. Course materials were examined for evidence of encouragement and support for critical reflection and autonomy. The research aimed to establish what OU language learners do to develop productive and receptive language skills and the extent to which they demonstrate capacities of critical reflection and autonomy. It examined the extent to which these capacities were developed via course materials and assignments and the impact of the style and pace of study. It considered whether these capacities could be enhanced by the project materials, as well as the influence of tutors' expectations and approaches. The majority of interviewees exhibited considerable functional activity except in writing skills. They demonstrated characteristics of the 'good' language learner, elements of a deep approach and features of autonomous learning. This contrasted with a surface approach to coursework and assignments, brought about by excessive workload and the controlled, anxiety-provoking nature of assessment. Analysis of assignments also suggested they were likely to evoke a surface approach. Course materials advocated reflection, self-assessment and self-evaluation, but did not support this via teaching or practice and offered few decision-making opportunities. Students exercised the capacity for critical reflection and autonomy to varying degrees. Those who had used the proj ect materials appeared more likely to make decisions about their learning, and set specific goals. The project materials were judged a straightforward framework for reflection. Tutors were positive about the materials but appeared to give little attention to critical reflection. Their concerns about time constraints and student workload may have confirmed student perceptions and discouraged use of the project materials. The research suggests broadening the notion of the 'good' language learner. It proposes more explicit development of learning strategies and the capacity for critical reflection within course materials and tutorials, and giving more attention to the nature and impact of assessment in order to foster 'active', deep, autonomous learning.

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The thesis takes its inspiration from a parallel central to Byzantine ideology: God enthroned in heaven, governing the universe, is mirrored on earth by the emperor surrounded by his court, ruling his realm. The earliest definitive formulation of this doctrine is expressed by Eusebius of Caesarea in the 'Tricennial Orations' held for Constantine the Great in A.D. 336. The thesis briefly documents this formulation and then takes a look at the further evolution of this parallel in some fourth century Fathers. Here the parallel becomes a metaphor in that the earthly basileus is frequently employed to explain and describe God. At the same time, the attitudes towards the earthly basileus need not be positive. After having thus set the scene, the thesis moves on to its primary task and explores heaven and the basileus in St. John Chrysostom. The sheer bulk of his work is matched by the complexity of his views in this respect, far removed from the apparent simplicity of the Eusebian model. After documenting his ideas about the technique of metaphor, and about the application of such a parallel as that of God and basileus, I examine Chrysostom's metaphorical use of the basileus in his explanations of inexprimable divine qualities. The basileus takes more shape when Chrysostom describes him in the context of the Old Testament, of early imperial history, or as a contemporary ruler. These portrayals are suitably followed by an exploration of Chrysostom's uncompromising interpretation of the relationship between priest and ruler. A short excursus on his attitude towards imperial and Christian symbols rounds off this extensive treatment of the basileus. The next two chapters concentrate on how Chrysostom describes heaven and what role is played by imperial terminology and concepts in these descriptions. Finally, the possible influence of St. Paul on Chrysostom in these areas is considered - partly because the topos of the Apostle in the power of the pagan basileus Nero appears frequently, partly because St. Paul turns out to be a major Leitfigur for Chrysostom. This bulky documentation works exclusively from texts dating from Chrysostom's life in Antioch. His move to Constantinople and into the direct environment of the real basileus presents a chronological step of the utmost importance in the context of the God - basileus parallel. Introducing this chronological divide in the course of the thesis obviously involves a close attention to the dating of Chrysostom's works, which in many cases is not unequivocal. The thesis tries to show that the awareness of a chronology of metaphorical language within Chrysostom's works can help with the dating of individual texts. Although this possibility was resorted to very sparingly here for fear of introducing a circular argument, it merits becoming a stronger element in studies on Chrysostom. For the Constantinopolitan period, the thesis tries to ascertain whether Chrysostom's view of the earthly basileus and his use of metaphors based on this basileus in the description of heaven are influenced and changed by his experience of imperial reality. The most interesting question then is to what extent Chrysostom's metaphorical use of 'the basileus' in all its different shades of meaning precipitated his fate at imperial hands. As the conclusion argues, these findings are of special interest in view of the popularity Chrysostom enjoyed throughout Byzantine history. It is possible that with his extensive metaphorical use of the basileus he was a model and an influence in theological and ideological issues. There is the possibility that descriptions that were intended by Chrysostom to show the limitations of earthly rule in comparison with heavenly power may have been misunderstood, due to subtlety of expression, as describing a full parallel between God and basileus. This applies both to contemporary audiences and later readers and supports a hypothesis that Byzantine propaganda was not so much constructed by masterminds as inferred by audiences.

Das aussagekräftige Messen und Bewerten von Fremdsprachenkenntnissen gewinnt zunehmend an Bedeutung. Sowohl in den Bereichen Beruf und Bildung, aber auch im Privaten und nicht zuletzt im Zuge erheblicher Zu- und Abwanderungsbewegungen weltweit spielt das Beherrschern, Fördern und Evaluieren von Sprachen eine maßgebliche Rolle. Die Reihe Research Papers in Assessment, herausgegeben vom Vorstand des Instituts für Testforschung und Testentwicklung e.V., präsentiert aktuelle Studien zur validen und reliablen Messung von Sprachkenntnissen, zu High- und Low-Stakes-Tests, zu Testkonzepten für Unterricht und Lehrmaterialien, zu diagnostischen Testverfahren und damit verbundener individueller Sprachförderung, Sprachbedarfsanalysen und allen damit verbundenen Themen. Die Reihe erscheint als Online-Publikation, um aktuelle Forschungsergebnisse möglichst rasch interessierten issenschaftlerInnen, Lehrkräften und mit dem Testen von Fremdsprachenkenntnissen betrauten Institutionen zugänglich zu machen und diese in die Testpraxis umsetzen zu können.

The purpose of this study was to establish a crosswalk between the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL iBT® ) and four ACTFL Assessments to help examinees and institutions of higher education (IHE) to better understand the correspondences between TOEFL iBT scores and examinees’ functional proficiency, i.e., their ability to use functional English in real-world academic and social situations.