As a global language, English has spread to the extent that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers. In the last few decades, a body of research literature has emerged demonstrating the decreasing global relevance of native English speakers, and calling for a re-evaluation of English Language Teaching (ELT) practices, in order to better prepare students for using English as a global lingua franca. However, students’ needs and attitudes towards English and ELT must be fully investigated before curriculum changes can be suggested. Many attitude studies conclude that students favour native varieties of English. However, such research often uses single research methods and very few relate attitude studies to ELT. Further research is required regarding students’ attitudes towards English, the factors influencing these attitudes and how they relate to ELT. Moreover, few studies have investigated these proposals in any depth or explored the impact of course instruction in the global uses of English on students’ attitudes. This thesis is an investigation of Japanese university students’ attitudes towards English and English teachers in relation to the use of English as a lingua franca (ELF). In order to widen the scope of understanding, this research employed a mixture of quantitative and qualitative measures to obtain data about the participants and their attitudes. Thus, questionnaires, interviews and focus groups were used. Following the introduction, chapter two and three provide a literature review. Chapter four outlines the methodology, and the results are presented in chapters five, six and seven. Chapter eight presents a discussion of the results and the implications of this study for teaching English are discussed in chapter nine. The findings suggest that English is seen as a language belonging to native English speakers and those students want to learn native English. However, the results highlighted that a number of factors influence students’ attitudes. The findings also demonstrated that the study of Global Englishes influenced students in a number of ways, including their motivation for learning English, attitudes towards varieties of English and attitudes towards English teachers. It encouraged them to question notions of ‘standard English’, was helpful for future ELF communication and raised their confidence as English speakers. In sum, the findings of this study provide an empirical basis for a re-evaluation of ELT and suggest that Global Englishes Language Teaching is something that should be further investigated.

The English language has spread across the globe to become an international language. With the growing number of speakers of English, it has been claimed that English is no longer the sole property of its native speakers but is a global lingua franca (ELF). Under these circumstances, it is natural that various language ideologies have formed, pervaded with ideological debates. In the last two decades, scholarly research has urged reform and re-evaluation in the field of English language teaching (ELT). However, in practice, most ELT approaches remain stigmatised to the standard or ‘authentic’ native speaker English paradigm. This overlooks the fact that English is more often used by non-native speakers than native speakers. In addition, the functional role of the language is routinely ignored when it comes to the classroom practice of language teaching. As people’s attitudes towards the English language and ELT display substantial intransigence, despite the rapidly-changing linguistic realities, it is necessary to investigate how university teachers and students perceive this international language in relation to language pedagogy. Until now, research based on the ELF paradigm has been relatively rare, particularly in the Chinese context. This thesis draws upon Chinese university students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards their own and other English accents in the ELF framework. The research adopted a mixed-methods approach in order to obtain the desired level of detail. First, a questionnaire was sent to students to generate quantitative data to help understand students’ attitudes about accents more broadly. With the aim of providing rich data description, interviews and focus groups were also employed, with both student and teacher participants. From the analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data, the findings suggest that both student and teacher participants display complex and uncertain attitudes. In general, students did not feel satisfied with their own English accents and would like to refine them to match native speakers of English more closely, but they did not expect other people to sound native-like; this result may reflect the notion of ‘being strict with oneself while relaxed with others’ that has been identified as prevalent in Chinese culture. Teachers display two primary outlooks: on the one hand, they recognised the global spread of English and noted the importance of their own identities when using the language. On the other hand, a number of them still believed they should improve their English accents because they serve as professional pronunciation role models to students. A key finding of the research is that, despite the rooted native-oriented ideology, both students and teachers expressed the necessity of exposure to different accents. In sum, the research findings demonstrate various and complex accent attitudes in relation to the participants’ identity construction. Based on the implications of the research, the thesis concludes with a proposal for teaching pronunciation based on the ELF framework – Teaching of Pronunciation for Intercultural Communication (ToPIC) – as a pronunciation praxis to respond better to the current linguistic landscape of English. Research limitations and possibilities for further research are discussed at the end of the thesis.

This thesis focuses on the learning and use of English as a tool of instruction inside Libyan universities. The study begins with an investigation of the challenges that students and lecturers face in the learning and teaching of the language of English in higher education. In-depth qualitative research was carried out at Sebha University in the South of Libya, including individual and group interviews with staff and students. The thesis, in this respect, makes a particular contribution as it sets out the multiple and contradictory challenges that all parties experience. It seeks not to lay blame but, rather, to understand how the parties concerned understand the issues from their unique point of view. This element of the thesis shows up the major challenges in the teaching and learning of English in higher education in Libya. The second element of empirical work concerns how English is then employed as the language of transmission in a professional field – medicine. This second ‘layer’ of work, then, illustrates what happens when a language which is not the language of either the lecturers or the students is used to try to communicate and develop complex information and understandings. This second element of the work shows then how the challenges evident in the teaching and learning of English are carried into a professional field. The concept of ‘deep rote’ learning in extrapolated from the data. The reliance on rote learning in the teaching of English ‘translates’ into a deeper level of rote in the teaching and learning of Medicine, as lecturers and students alike struggle both with the language and the content of the material they are working with. This ‘deep rote’ is consolidated through social and cultural issues and the challenges associated with funding, resourcing and training of staff in Libyan Higher Education. Connections are made between the area of study and the personal experience of the researcher carrying out the study with a methodological reflection on the challenges faced by a student of this same system. To this end, 45 semi-structured interviews were conducted with staff and students from medicine and education departments at Sebha University, divided as follows: 21 semi-structured interviews with students and 24 semi-structured interviews with staff members. These interviews were followed by three focus groups with a particular focus on shedding light on the issues that the students raised in one-to-one interviews, including the main challenges they face when the lecturers use English as the medium of study instead of Arabic, their experiences of learning English, and the different methods that lecturers use in order to support students’ learning in different areas of study. Each group had five participants with two groups being made up entirely of young women. Grounded Theory was used as the theoretical approach to investigate the collected data. The author tried to put to one side any a priori assumptions about what he would find and used a systematic process of organising the data under themes and categories which were then related to each other. The main motivation for the use of this theory was that the findings gained can be valid and reliable in respect of representing real-world settings. In addition, the stories that are told through this approach are context-specific, detailed, and robustly connected to the data.

This thesis aims to bring together the area of pragmatics in second language learning (SLL), and dynamic assessment (DA), and in doing so offer an alternative way of both assessing pragmatics and providing its instruction. DA aims to provide a detailed analysis of not only a learner’s current stage of development, but also their still developing abilities. Unifying instruction and assessment, the learner and a mediator co-construct a task, with the mediator providing assistance when necessary. By examining both the types of mediation practices and their frequency, insights can be gained as to the learner’s still maturing abilities, and future potential. DA also aims to uncover sources of learner difficulty, offering a diagnostic function as part of assessment. Drawing on conversation analysis research, the work of Gal’Perin and DA methodology, this study carried out a DA of the speech act of requesting in spoken interaction, assessing the effectiveness with which the DA promoted development in the learners. Further, the ability of the DA to uncover specific locations of learner difficulty was examined, as well as the ways in which the interlocutors successfully negotiated the opening and closing of mediation sequences. Six Japanese EFL learners in a university context co-constructed a number of role-play type language tasks with the researcher. In the first stage of the study, the researcher did not offer support to the learners, while in the following stage, mediation was provided when appropriate. The findings were used to inform the enrichment programme (EP) portion of the study, in which the learners met with the researcher for a period of four weeks, receiving tutoring. This was followed by further non-dynamic and dynamic assessments, to allow analysis of learner development. The study’s findings indicate that DA methodology, when applied to the speech act of requesting, can be an effective way to both promote learner development and assess learners’ abilities. Compared with the pre-EP assessments, participants produced more complex interactions that frequently showed evidence of taking the social context of the role-plays into account, as well as assuming greater responsibility for successfully completing the tasks. Participants were also more frequently able to verbally explain their language choices with reference to the target concepts of the assessments and EP. Further, overall, the opening and closing of mediation sequences were accomplished with more implicit negotiation practices, indicating increased interactive competence. The DA was also successful in locating specific locations of learner difficulty.

This study critically explores the perceptions of students on the implementation of the English as a medium of instruction (EMI) policy at a public higher education institution in Oman and its effect on the quality of their learning experiences and academic performance. Although the Gulf has recently witnessed an increase in research on EMI, such research is rather scarce in Oman in particular from a critical approach. Through the focus on students’ perspectives, the study gives a voice to otherwise voiceless students whose insights have been largely ignored by language policy planners. For the study, a critical exploratory methodology was adopted where in-depth qualitative data were collected through a two-phase sequential mixed methods approach that consisted of a questionnaire distributed among 328 students studying in seven different faculties, 14 classroom observations and 14 students’ interviews. The findings suggest that the majority of participants either supported or accepted the EMI policy for pragmatic reasons based on the utilitarian function of English as a lingua franca in Oman and its requirement for future jobs. However, the participants acknowledged that they faced great difficulties in their study which was mainly caused by their insufficient language competence. It was also acknowledged that Arabic as a medium of instruction (AMI) would lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter and would most probably lead to better academic performance. Few participants found that the endorsement of EMI negatively influenced their ability to use Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) and marginalised the role of Arabic in their society. Overall, the implementation of EMI had a disempowering effect on students with low English language proficiency and had a negative psychological impact on them. Based on the findings, the EMI policy has been contested since it does not provide students with equal opportunities to study at tertiary level. In addition, the quality of education has been compromised in response to assumed market forces. Also, a strict EMI policy does not allow students to enhance their Arabic competence which is relevant for future employment. The pedagogic competence of teachers has also been questioned and gaps in the support system for students with language deficiencies have been identified. The study makes several recommendations that are expected to improve the learning conditions of students studying at tertiary level through EMI. The recommendations include the enhancement of English language teaching (ELT) in schools to better prepare students for their academic study in English. In addition, AMI courses should be offered in all faculties due to its support in gaining profound comprehension of the subject matter and its relevance for students’ future jobs. Teachers should be given the opportunity to develop their pedagogic competence that would allow them to use a student-centred approach in teaching through EMI or AMI. Finally, the college should increase students’ support in their study especially in EMI through creating support centres where they could resort to in case they face any difficulties in their study.

This thesis explores students’ views concerning the current English as medium of instruction (EMI) policy at Kuwait’s two public higher education institutions, Kuwait University (KU) and the Public Authority for Applied Education and Training (PAAET). In line with the exploratory nature of this study, an interpretivist and social constructivist epistemological stance was implemented to elicit and analyse students’ views and gain their insights on the current situation. The study employed a sequential mixed method design using quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative (focus groups, semi-structured interviews and semi-structured observations) methods to present a holistic picture. The number of the participants were 12 for the focus groups, 100 for the questionnaire, 11 for the in-depth interviews and 10 teaching sessions were observed. Descriptive statistics were calculated for the quantitative strand data and thematic analysis was used for the qualitative data. The study revealed that although most participants preferred to learn through English, the current EMI policy raised many concerns. These related to students having to endure an ‘extra burden’ and the additional effort needed to study a subject being taught in a language that was not their mother tongue. The students expressed the view that this resulted in them being unable to gain a deep knowledge of the subject and not attain high grades which then affected their career prospects. These issues arose due to the students not being sufficiently competent in the use of English at the high level expected for degree level work. Students also expressed concerns relating to EMI policy effects on Arab identity and on the use of Arabic as a language of science and academia. Students would prefer a policy that promoted the use of both Arabic and English in their courses which would enable them to benefit from developing their understanding of both languages. The thesis concludes by presenting a recommendation to modify the medium of instruction policy such that it incorporates both English and Arabic. These recommendations have implications for policymakers, teachers and students.

This exploratory, interpretive study investigates the attitudes towards and experiences of English-medium instruction (EMI) within higher education (HE) on the part of female students completing an intensive foundation programme at a major federal tertiary institution in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Two data collection procedures were employed in this study, a 21-item questionnaire, and in-depth, face-to-face, semi-structured interviews. Content analysis was performed on transcriptions of the latter, a procedure which gave rise to recurring, emergent themes. Such themes included the belief expressed by some participants that having the second language (L2) of English as the medium of instruction (MI) can act as a barrier to learning, and that it would be preferable to study in their first language (L1) of Arabic. Additionally, it was found that some students believed their secondary school education had failed to afford them adequate preparation for EMI HE, a disturbing finding given that the government of the UAE appears to have stated a desire to achieve universal HE for females, whilst also signalling its intention to eliminate university-based foundation programmes. In addition to such academic-related findings, it emerged that there exists significant ambivalence towards the place and standing of English in contemporary Emirati society, with a recurring theme being that whilst knowledge of and proficiency in English is required for the globalised economy, and thus for the future of the country, the pervasive spread of the English language in the UAE poses a threat not only to Arabic, but also to the religious identity and cultural integrity of the indigenous Emirati population. The findings of this study lead to the recommendation that the UAE implement a paradigmatic shift in its language policy within federally-sponsored HE by reverting to Arabic as the primary MI, with English as a foreign language (EFL) or English as a second language (ESL) as a subject replacing EMI.

In this thesis I investigate the practices and perceptions of some Newly Qualified Teachers (NQTs) of modern foreign languages (MFL) in Scotland in relation to how they use the target language (L2). I seek to answer the questions “In what different ways do student teachers of modern languages use the target language in Scottish secondary school classrooms?’, ‘What reasons do they give for how they use it?” and “In what way(s), if any, do newly qualified teachers of modern languages change teaching pedagogy in their initial stages of teaching in relation to the use of the target language and what reasons do they give for any changes they make?”. The issue arises because of the continuing gap between what initial teacher education (ITE) advocates in respect of L2 use and what qualified teachers say they do, in so far as there is evidence in this area. There is little empirical evidence relating to how and why MFL NQTs develop the practices and perceptions of qualified teachers. Data was gathered through an online questionnaire issued to all modern languages teachers in Scotland and semi-structured interviews were conducted with a small group of PGDE (Secondary) Modern Languages students at the end of their PGDE year and at the end of their first year of teaching as NQTs. Audio-recordings of the NQTs were also made during this first year of teaching. Data from the four sources were analysed using an inductive approach, remaining flexible in terms of extending, modifying and discarding categories. The findings revealed that the NQTs used considerably less target language during their NQT year and had changed their views on the target language substantially since their PGDE year. They reported that they found it difficult to use L2 for discipline, grammar teaching, explaining things and for social chat. At the same time there were huge changes in their practice and big changes in their views vis-à-vis L2 use. Significantly, the data revealed that these changes in practice and views happened very quickly, were a lot starker and occurred a lot faster than previously thought. This situation seems to have many causes – influences from experienced colleagues, survival tactics, how teachers develop their own pedagogy and identity as teachers. This thesis recommends that those involved in ITE and Career Long Professional Learning look particularly at the two areas of situated learning and teacher cognition in relation to the use of the target language. It further recommends collaborative research between teachers in schools and other agencies, such as Education Scotland and local authority quality improvement officers, together with teacher educators to develop an understanding of how to promote effective learning and teaching strategies in relation to the use of the target language in class.

This study investigated the ways English native and Arab EFL student writers in a UK university from two disciplines (i.e. Linguistics and Literature) use language in their master’s dissertations to interact with readers. How they present themselves and convey judgements and opinions, and how they connect with readers and establish rapport were examined by the employment of Hyland’s (2005b) model of stance and engagement, which encompasses nine categories: hedges, boosters, attitude markers, self-mentions, reader references, directives, asides, questions, and references to shared knowledge. The primary data used consisted of a corpus of 39 master’s dissertations and discourse-based semi-structured interviews with 15 of the writers. While a corpus analysis helped to reveal which features were overused and which ones were underused, interviews were conducted to discover more about how and why the writer participants used such features in their academic writing. The findings suggest that while it is true that both disciplinary community and cultural background are very likely to have an impact on the way writers position themselves and their readers, there are other factors related to the students’ conceptions of academic writing in general and their audience in particular which appear to have a more vital role in the writers’ use of stance and engagement markers. These include personality differences, stylistic preferences, previous education, and supervisors’ comments and advice. The thesis closes by exploring the implications of this study for both EAP writing pedagogy and dissertation supervision and proposing some new directions for future research.

Mobile information and communication technologies (ICTs), with advanced capabilities, have created new prospects and opportunities, for both students and faculty who are learning and teaching English as a foreign language, in higher education in Saudi Arabia. Technology acceptance theories and models have been widely developed, used and extended to determine the factors related to the acceptance of such technologies in specific national and subject contexts. However, there have been very few studies of the acceptance of new ICTs in teaching and learning in the higher education context of Saudi Arabia, in general; and none that relate to the teaching of English as a foreign language. To examine the readiness for, and acceptance of, mobile learning and teaching among students and faculty at Taibah University in Saudi Arabia, a theory of technology acceptance, developed for a consumer context, was used as the framework for this study; considering the participants as consumers of mobile technologies within an organization. This study utilised the extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT2) model to identify the factors responsible for use behaviour and the behavioural intention to use mobile technologies in learning and teaching English as a foreign language. The research model hypothesized that Performance Expectancy, Effort Expectancy, Social Influence, Facilitating Conditions, Hedonic Motivation, Price of Devices, Price of Services, and Habit will predict Behavioural Intentions to use mobile technologies in learning and teaching EFL and Use Behaviour. It was also hypothesized that Age, Gender, and Experience will moderate the impact of the eight factors included in the research model. This model was empirically tested using data collected from 878 students and 65 faculty members by two cross-sectional surveys at Taibah University in Saudi Arabia. The results of regression analyses indicated that the research model was partially confirmed, and highlighted key variables as the driving forces of use behaviour and behavioural intention to use mobile technologies in learning and teaching English as a foreign language. The findings of this empirical research provide crucial information that can guide the implementation of proactive interventions to widely improve the practices of learning iii and teaching; and greatly increase our understanding of the reasons for, and effectiveness of, the adoption of mobile technologies in higher education in Saudi Arabia. More importantly, as English continues to develop as the global language of business and commerce, and the lingua franca of academic and social media networks, the increased effectiveness of the use of mobile ICTs in teaching and learning English that results from this research will enable Saudi students to operate as global citizens within the emerging world knowledge economy, and increase significantly the human capital return on the substantial investments in such mobile technologies by the government of Saudi Arabia and its universities.