Between 1860 and 1940 Aotearoa New Zealand’s economy and economic base was transformed in a number of significant ways, following similar patterns in earlier-established British colonies. The influx of European immigrants drastically altered the demography and contested land – the economic base. Money became increasingly important as medium of exchange and unit of account. Whereas the economy was unregulated or lightly-regulated before 1860, regulation increasingly formalised economic relations and institutions, and work organisation became more impersonal. In urban areas these transformations were substantially complete by 1940. However, in rural areas, where most Mäori and fewer Päkehä lived, economic transformation was more of a hybrid than a complete change from one form to another. The informal economy (unmeasured and unregulated), and particularly the rural informal economy, contributed (and still contributes) quantitatively to the national economy. Whether within Mäori communities, within Päkehä communities or between the two, the more informal rural economy depended on social relations to a large extent. Mäori had choices about how they related to the introduced economic system, ranging from full engagement to rejection and non-involvement, with numerous negotiated positions in between. With the conviction that they could satisfactorily negotiate terms of participation, Mäori had invited Europeans to the far north. The extent of Mäori involvement in all the dominant (formal) economic activities of the far north, 1860-1940, clearly indicates their efforts were integral rather than peripheral to the Päkehä economy. But Mäori economic activity has been relegated to the shadows of economic history. The relationship between the two systems is better understood by recognising the interplay between formal and informal (shadow) economies. The social organisation of work, the kaupapa of the informal economy, the diversity of strategies and tactics, and relationship building (both bonding and bridging), were the strengths from which far northern Mäori relentlessly engaged with the Päkehä economy, while maintaining a degree of autonomy until World War One. In effect they played an invisible hand of cards, invisible, that is, to studies of the formal economy. / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

Both in the present and the past, horses have a strong presence in New Zealand society and culture. The country’s temperate climate and colonial environment allowed horses to flourish and accordingly became accessible to a wide range of people. Horses acted as an agent of colonisation for their role in shaping the landscape and fostering relationships between coloniser and colonised. Imported horses and the traditions associated with them, served to maintain a cultural link between Great Britain and her colony, a characteristic that continued well into the twentieth century. Not all of these transplanted readily to the colonial frontier and so they were modified to suit the land and its people. There are a number of horses that have meaning to this country. The journey horse, sport horse, work horse, warhorse, wild horse, pony and Maori horse have all contributed to the creation of ideas about community and nationhood. How these horses are represented in history, literature and imagery reveal much of the attitudes, values, aspirations and anxieties of the times. Yet despite the clear significance of horses to this country, no one breed of horse has emerged to represent the country as a whole. Unlike many other modern nations, New Zealand has not identified a national horse. Close allegiance to the British heritage as well as a strong sense of local and regional identity has meant that there is no New Zealand Horse to take its place beside the Australian Stockhorse, the Canadian Horse or any of the other national horses.

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / Nineteenth-century representations of prostitutes were governed, modern historians argue, by a powerful and resilient mythology. The myth of the prostitute’s downward progress – a narrative involving disease, destitution, and early death – was allegedly crystallised in the Victorian consciousness from the 1840s, and consequently reproduced (visually and in print) into the mid and late Victorian period. Despite innovative studies into the social, economic, and cultural context of Victorian prostitution, scholars continue to read the sources for the omnipotence of the myth of downward trajectory. Such readings continue to constrain interpretations of Victorian ideologies regarding prostitution. Studying contemporary representations provides a way of reading prostitution. The analysis of texts reveals the construction of social meanings, attitudes, agendas, anxieties, and fears. This thesis reads a selection of post-1850 sources to subject Victorian ideology on prostitution to much needed scrutiny. The five chosen case studies represent the variety of discourses and cultural interest in prostitution in the Victorian period: Dr. William Acton’s Prostitution Considered (1870); The Report of the Royal Commission into the Contagious Diseases Acts (1871); Josephine Butler’s early repeal campaign literature; Wilkie Collins’ novel, The New Magdalen (1873); and the pornographic ‘memoir’, My Secret Life (c.1890). The choice of texts provides an argument on two fronts: canonical texts must be revisited and reread for their multiple layers, internal contradictions, and interpretative potential; and alternative sources should be utilised to illustrate the variety within the repertoire of Victorian cultural representations. In focusing on representations this thesis challenges scholarly orthodoxies. Where scholars have continued to read homogeneity in Victorian attitudes to prostitution, this thesis finds complexity, flexibility, and dissonance. The myth of the prostitute’s downward progress remained a popular narrative in much Victorian discourse on prostitution. But it was not the only narrative and did not go unchallenged. The prostitute was a powerful cultural symbol in the Victorian period and remains a figure of sustained interest for modern academics. It is therefore essential to recognise the complex ways in which she was represented in Victorian culture. This thesis argues for the heterogeneity of Victorian attitudes to prostitution.

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / Nineteenth-century representations of prostitutes were governed, modern historians argue, by a powerful and resilient mythology. The myth of the prostitute’s downward progress – a narrative involving disease, destitution, and early death – was allegedly crystallised in the Victorian consciousness from the 1840s, and consequently reproduced (visually and in print) into the mid and late Victorian period. Despite innovative studies into the social, economic, and cultural context of Victorian prostitution, scholars continue to read the sources for the omnipotence of the myth of downward trajectory. Such readings continue to constrain interpretations of Victorian ideologies regarding prostitution. Studying contemporary representations provides a way of reading prostitution. The analysis of texts reveals the construction of social meanings, attitudes, agendas, anxieties, and fears. This thesis reads a selection of post-1850 sources to subject Victorian ideology on prostitution to much needed scrutiny. The five chosen case studies represent the variety of discourses and cultural interest in prostitution in the Victorian period: Dr. William Acton’s Prostitution Considered (1870); The Report of the Royal Commission into the Contagious Diseases Acts (1871); Josephine Butler’s early repeal campaign literature; Wilkie Collins’ novel, The New Magdalen (1873); and the pornographic ‘memoir’, My Secret Life (c.1890). The choice of texts provides an argument on two fronts: canonical texts must be revisited and reread for their multiple layers, internal contradictions, and interpretative potential; and alternative sources should be utilised to illustrate the variety within the repertoire of Victorian cultural representations. In focusing on representations this thesis challenges scholarly orthodoxies. Where scholars have continued to read homogeneity in Victorian attitudes to prostitution, this thesis finds complexity, flexibility, and dissonance. The myth of the prostitute’s downward progress remained a popular narrative in much Victorian discourse on prostitution. But it was not the only narrative and did not go unchallenged. The prostitute was a powerful cultural symbol in the Victorian period and remains a figure of sustained interest for modern academics. It is therefore essential to recognise the complex ways in which she was represented in Victorian culture. This thesis argues for the heterogeneity of Victorian attitudes to prostitution.

The role of London in forming New Zealand���s culture and identity is a significant feature of New Zealand���s cultural history that has, until now, been overlooked. Ties with London and with ���Home��� generally, have received little study, and ���Britishness��� in New Zealand is largely considered a legacy of demography to be eventually outgrown. This thesis suggests something different. During the period 1890-1940, technology changed cultural perceptions of time and space, and it changed the relationship between metropole and former colony too. These technologies drew New Zealand and London closer together. London was constructed as an active part of the New Zealand cultural landscape, rather than as a nostalgic remnant of a predominantly British-born settler population. London was New Zealand���s metropolis too, with consequences for the way New Zealand culture was shaped. This thesis considers the cultural impact of London using four tropes linked to those changing perceptions of time and space. ���Greater New Zealand��� is concerned with space, whilst ������New��� New Zealand��� is concerned with time. ���London���s Farm��� and the ���Imaginative Hinterland��� consider propinquity and simultaneity respectively. Each theme draws from different bases of evidence in order to suggest London���s broad impact. Collectively, they argue for a shift away from a core and periphery relationship, towards one better described as a city and hinterland relationship. This approach draws upon existing national, imperial, and cultural historiography, whilst at the same time questioning some of their conventions and conceptions. New Zealand as hinterland challenges the conceptual borders of ���national history���, exploring the transnational nature of cultural formations that otherwise have been considered as autochthonous New Zealand (or for that matter, British) developments. At the same time, whilst hinterlands may exist as part of empire, they are not necessarily products of it. Nor are they necessarily formed in opposition to the metropole, even though alterity is often used to explain colonial relationships. ���New Zealand���s London��� is, instead a reciprocal creation. Its shared cultural landscape is specific, but at the same time, it offers an alternative means for understanding other white settler colonies. Like New Zealand, their cultural histories may be more complex cultural constructions than national or imperial stories allow. / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

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The role of London in forming New Zealand’s culture and identity is a significant feature of New Zealand’s cultural history that has, until now, been overlooked. Ties with London and with ‘Home’ generally, have received little study, and ‘Britishness’ in New Zealand is largely considered a legacy of demography to be eventually outgrown. This thesis suggests something different. During the period 1890-1940, technology changed cultural perceptions of time and space, and it changed the relationship between metropole and former colony too. These technologies drew New Zealand and London closer together. London was constructed as an active part of the New Zealand cultural landscape, rather than as a nostalgic remnant of a predominantly British-born settler population. London was New Zealand’s metropolis too, with consequences for the way New Zealand culture was shaped. This thesis considers the cultural impact of London using four tropes linked to those changing perceptions of time and space. ‘Greater New Zealand’ is concerned with space, whilst ‘“New” New Zealand’ is concerned with time. ‘London’s Farm’ and the ‘Imaginative Hinterland’ consider propinquity and simultaneity respectively. Each theme draws from different bases of evidence in order to suggest London’s broad impact. Collectively, they argue for a shift away from a core and periphery relationship, towards one better described as a city and hinterland relationship. This approach draws upon existing national, imperial, and cultural historiography, whilst at the same time questioning some of their conventions and conceptions. New Zealand as hinterland challenges the conceptual borders of ‘national history’, exploring the transnational nature of cultural formations that otherwise have been considered as autochthonous New Zealand (or for that matter, British) developments. At the same time, whilst hinterlands may exist as part of empire, they are not necessarily products of it. Nor are they necessarily formed in opposition to the metropole, even though alterity is often used to explain colonial relationships. ‘New Zealand’s London’ is, instead a reciprocal creation. Its shared cultural landscape is specific, but at the same time, it offers an alternative means for understanding other white settler colonies. Like New Zealand, their cultural histories may be more complex cultural constructions than national or imperial stories allow. / Whole document restricted, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / Nineteenth-century representations of prostitutes were governed, modern historians argue, by a powerful and resilient mythology. The myth of the prostitute’s downward progress – a narrative involving disease, destitution, and early death – was allegedly crystallised in the Victorian consciousness from the 1840s, and consequently reproduced (visually and in print) into the mid and late Victorian period. Despite innovative studies into the social, economic, and cultural context of Victorian prostitution, scholars continue to read the sources for the omnipotence of the myth of downward trajectory. Such readings continue to constrain interpretations of Victorian ideologies regarding prostitution. Studying contemporary representations provides a way of reading prostitution. The analysis of texts reveals the construction of social meanings, attitudes, agendas, anxieties, and fears. This thesis reads a selection of post-1850 sources to subject Victorian ideology on prostitution to much needed scrutiny. The five chosen case studies represent the variety of discourses and cultural interest in prostitution in the Victorian period: Dr. William Acton’s Prostitution Considered (1870); The Report of the Royal Commission into the Contagious Diseases Acts (1871); Josephine Butler’s early repeal campaign literature; Wilkie Collins’ novel, The New Magdalen (1873); and the pornographic ‘memoir’, My Secret Life (c.1890). The choice of texts provides an argument on two fronts: canonical texts must be revisited and reread for their multiple layers, internal contradictions, and interpretative potential; and alternative sources should be utilised to illustrate the variety within the repertoire of Victorian cultural representations. In focusing on representations this thesis challenges scholarly orthodoxies. Where scholars have continued to read homogeneity in Victorian attitudes to prostitution, this thesis finds complexity, flexibility, and dissonance. The myth of the prostitute’s downward progress remained a popular narrative in much Victorian discourse on prostitution. But it was not the only narrative and did not go unchallenged. The prostitute was a powerful cultural symbol in the Victorian period and remains a figure of sustained interest for modern academics. It is therefore essential to recognise the complex ways in which she was represented in Victorian culture. This thesis argues for the heterogeneity of Victorian attitudes to prostitution.

This project will examine the impact and the progress of Methodist missionary work on Choiseul from 1905 to 1941. The predominant European contact on Choiseul was with missionaries and this was significantly more recent than many of the other islands in the group. Choiseul was unattractive for settlement or commercial development because the lack of arable land meant that it was unsuitable for large plantations to be established. A lacuna exists in the current historiography of the Solomons with regard to Choiseul. A study of the Methodist Mission on Choiseul offers the opportunity to examine the development of the mission, and the people on the island during the period under study, and fill that gap. The nature of conversion to Christianity on Choiseul, and the way the missionaries, including European, Solomon Islanders and Pacific Islanders, operated, cooperated, and disagreed with the Choiseulese and with each other will be examined to help answer the question, to what extent was Choiseul a Methodist, or a missionary, island.

This thesis studies Friendly Societies of New Zealand from 1842, when the first lodge was established, to l94l when the Social Security Amendment Bill, allowing for the implementation of the general medical benefit, was enacted. It is the study of how, through the formation of mutual aid societies, a significant group of working people protected themselves against hardship. At the same time, it is the study of how Friendly Societies, by means of social activity and ritual, bonded their members together and synthesised their welfare role with the values of respectability, thrift and independence. The establishment of lodges throughout the nineteenth century is explored and it is shown how lodges, as well as providing for their members' welfare needs, were also effective community institutions of social integration, facilitating the adaptation of immigrants to their new environment. By the twentieth century very few New Zealand settlements were without a lodge. As an integral part of their communities, they were cross-class institutions, drawing together and mixing people from different classes, occupations and social groups. Traced also is the transformation of Friendly Societies from small, financially insecure, local lodges, combining conviviality with limited welfare benefits, to the large financially sound consolidated Societies of the 1930s providing their members with access to modem health care. Effective insurance became the primary focus of Friendly Societies. Although social life remained active, as the twentieth Century progressed, people increasingly joined lodges only for the health and medical benefits offered. Because of their wide range of benefits and because there was little else in the way of welfare relief at the time, Friendly Societies were relevant and significant suppliers of welfare. The state recognised this role and supported them with legislation and help, at least until 1910. However, as the state increasingly ventured into the welfare arena its support for the Societies waned, until finally friendly Society sickness benefits were replaced by the 1938 Social Security Act and their medical benefits by the Social Security Amendment Act of 1941. Friendly Societies were sidelined. Because welfare historiography has tended to focus on the state, it has neglected Friendly Societies. This study intends to redress the balance, and show that welfare did not start with tie state - that many people were making effective provision against sickness, disability and death for themselves long before the introduction of the welfare state.