Emotions guide action in the light of evolutionary imperatives, and provide subjective meaning to experiences and events. The extent to which the range of emotional responses familiar to humans is shared with other species is unclear. This thesis aimed to further the comparative understanding of emotional states, and seek new tools for research into subjective emotion. This was achieved using experiments aimed at exploring induced emotional states in animals, including humans. Firstly, a novel test of anxiety-like affect was developed for three-spined sticklebacks. Based on scototaxis (dark preference) and novel tank diving, the successful use of this test indicates potential future utility across a range of fish species. It was used, along with open-field and novel-object tests, to assess sticklebacks' emotional responses to handling stress. These tests showed reduced preference for dark and deep areas of the tank, and reduced distance from the novel-object, following handling with a net rather than a scoop. Results indicate for the first time that acute stress can have an anxiolytic effect on fish. Handling stress was further used as an affect manipulation in development of a novel cognitive-bias test for fish. Human experiments explored potential mechanisms for manipulating cognitive and subjective components of mood independently. Evidence for an impact of viewing triangles of differing orientation was found on explicitly stated, but not implicitly measured, emotion. A test of facial interpretive bias was used along with subjective report to examine the effect of unpredictable (compared to predictable) sound presentation on anxiety. This found inconsistent effects on both cognitive bias and felt emotion, indicating that they are similarly sensitive to low level affect. The effects that were found included sex differences with greater responses in female participants. Results are discussed in relation to future work which could be carried out to distinguish conscious and nonconscious emotion.

In the present study, sandfly salivary proteins of Lutzomyia longipalpis were characterised by SDS-PAGE, immunoblotling and MS-based proteomics. Salivary gland extracts (SGE) protein content females was determined, analysed by SDS-PAGE which revealed ~27 peptide bands (range: 5 kDa to 110 kDa), ~33% more than previously reported. Also for the first time, male SGE proteins were characterized by SDS-PAGE which separated ̴14 peptide bands (from ̴12 kDa to ̴105 kDa) constitnting a complex but distinct profile to that obtained for females. Only ̴6 peptide bands were shared between males and females. Sugar feeding did change SDS-PAGE profiles of SGEs from males and females. Total amount of salivary proteins increased with female Sandflyage although salivary proteins were not investigated upon blood-feeding. Comparative SDS-PAGE salivary protein profiles from females of three different siblings of Lutzomyia longipalpis showed reproducible differences. Immunoblotting of Lutzomyia longipalpis siblings’ SGE proteins against sera from hamsters that have been repeatedly challenged with only one of the siblings revealed a number of sibling-specific of salivary antigens.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

Within vertebrates the primordial germ cells (PGCs) can either be induced by embryonic signals (known as epigenesis), or predetermined by maternally deposited germ plasm (preformation). Epigenesis is known to be the ancestral mechanism, while preformation has evolved multiple times. Epigenesis has been proposed to enforce a developmental constraint on the evolution of somatic structures that is released in species which acquired preformation. In accordance with this hypothesis, the mesoderm gene regulatory network is conserved between urodeles and mammals, which have retained epigenesis, but has diverged in anurans (preformation). An increase in speciation has also been shown in vertebrates which have acquired preformation. Our aims were to investigate whether the mode of PGC specification associates with the molecular evolution of protein-coding genes. We downloaded all publicly available vertebrate sequences. These were combined with our three novel transcriptomes from axolotl, sturgeon and lungfish. In line with previous analyses, we built 4-taxon trees to investigate the extent of phylogenetic incongruence. This revealed a bias associated with the mode of PGC specification, caused by a significant difference in the rate of evolution. Many genes in species that have acquired preformation are evolving significantly faster than in their sister taxa undergoing epigenesis. These sequences are typically expressed in early development, and are ancient genes with known orthologs at the base of Eukaryotes. Additionally, we show that Oct4 and Nanog, which are crucial for pluripotency, have been lost in taxa using preformation. Therefore our results are consistent with the proposal that developmental constraint, imposed by epigenesis, is released in species undergoing preformation.

Chromosomal (karyotypic) analysis in animals is performed for three primary reasons: to diagnose genetic disease; to map genes to their place in the genome and to retrace evolutionary events by cross species comparison. Technology for analysis has progressed from chromosome banding (cytogenetics), to fluorescence in-situ hybridisation (FISH - molecular cytogenetics) through to microarrays and ultimately whole genome sequence analysis (cytogenomics or chromonomics). Indeed, the past 10-15 years has seen a revolution in whole genome sequencing, first with the human genome project, followed by those of key model and agricultural species and, more recently, ~60 de novo avian genome assemblies. Whole genome analysis provides detailed insight into the biology of chromosome rearrangements that occur both in individuals (for diagnostic purposes) and at an evolutionary level. It permits the study of gene mapping, trait linkage, phylogenomics, and gross genomic organisation and change. An essential pre-requisite however is an unbroken length of contiguous DNA sequence along the length of each chromosome. Most recent de novo genome assemblies fall short of this level of resolution producing lengths of contiguous sequence that are sub-chromosomal in size (scaffolds). Chromosome rearrangements can affect reproductive capability at an individual level (causing reduced fertility) and at a population level leading to reproductive isolation and subsequent speciation. The purpose of this thesis was to implement a step change in the combination of FISH technology with genome sequence data to provide greater insight into the nature of chromosomal rearrangement at an individual and evolutionary level. It therefore had four specific aims: The first was to isolate sub-telomeric sequences from the pig, cattle and chicken genome assemblies to develop a tool for the rapid screening of chromosome rearrangements. Now routinely used for porcine translocation screening (and in the future bovine screening), development work revealed serious integrity errors in the pig genome. The second aim was to isolate evolutionary conserved sequences from avian chromosomes to create a means of screening for macro-and microchromosomal rearrangements in birds. Results confirmed the hypothesis that microchromosomal rearrangements were rare in birds, except for previously known whole chromosomal fusions. The third was to use the above tools to complete scaffold based genome assemblies in two key avian species - the peregrine falcon and the pigeon. Finally, bioinformatic tools were used to infer the overall genome structure of hypothetical saurian and avian ancestors. Retracing of the evolutionary changes that occurred up until the emergence of birds allowed an assessment of chromosome evolution along the saurischia-maniraptora- avialae lineage. Analysis of evolutionary breakpoint regions (EBRs) allowed testing of the hypothesis that the ontology of genes within EBRs corresponded to measurable phenotypic change in the lineage under investigation. An enrichment of genes associated with body height corresponded to rapid size change in the dinosaur linage that led to modern birds. Taken together, these results paint a picture of a genome that, from about 260 million years ago formed a 'signature' highly successful avian-dinosaur karyotype that remained largely unchanged interchromosomally to the present day. These results represent significant insight into amniote genomic organization with the added benefit of developing tools that are widely applicable and transferrable for commercial animal breeding, for constructing de novo genome assemblies and for reconstructing, by inference, the overall genomic structure and evolution of extinct animals.

Left/right (L/R) asymmetries, differences in morphology between the otherwise mirrored left- and right-hand sides of the body, are found in animals across the Bilateria. For many years it was thought that the mechanisms for establishment of these asymmetries had evolved separately in the three superphyla that constitute the Bilateria, but the discovery in 2009 that the TGF-beta ligand Nodal shares a conserved role in the Deuterostomia and Lophotrochozoa has re-ignited debate and interest in this field. In this thesis, work examining the establishment and maintenance of L/R asymmetries in the lophotrochozoan superphylum is presented, aimed at uncovering the wider conservation of these pathways across the Bilateria. Illumina sequencing and a range of de novo assembly techniques were used to derive genomic and transcriptomic data respectively for two primary model organisms, the limpet Patella vulgata and the serpulid annelid Pomatoceros lamarckii. Additionally, collaborative work lead to the derivation of transcriptomes for two other mollusc species and the genome of the monogont rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. A range of analysis was performed on these novel resources and is detailed here, with particular reference to the transcription factor cassettes contained in these datasets. These sequence resources formed the basis for examination of the breaking of initial symmetry in these model organisms. Known read-outs of correct establishment of L/R asymmetry, the expression of genes Nodal and Pitx on the right of the body, were codified in the course of normal development in P. vulgata. Pharmacological inhibitors of genes implicated in the establishment of L/R asymmetry, particularly ATPase ion channels, were then applied to embryos. After development, markers of normal development were assayed for signs of bilateral inversion. Although radialised phenotypes were observed, it is unclear whether these are specifically the result of L/R asymmetry defects. The localisation of ATPase mRNA and serotonin, often posited as a small molecule potential morphogen, were also assayed, although no conclusions could be drawn as to a role in the establishment of L/R asymmetry for these molecules, counter to some evidence from vertebrates. Once symmetry is broken, the TGF-beta pathway is responsible for the communication, specification and maintenance of tissue identity across the L/R axis. The novel sequence resources described in this thesis provided a comprehensive window into this signalling cassette, and detailed here is a treatment of the TGF-beta pathway within the Lophotrochozoa. Ligand diversity has increased markedly in some clades, while signal transduction and regulatory steps are relatively unchanged. This work has increased our knowledge of lophotrochozoan biology and particularly the mechanisms underpinning the establishment of asymmetry in this under-researched clade, however, much remains to be discovered about the ultimate origin of asymmetry itself.

Τα κύτταρα της νευρικής ακρολοφίας είναι ένας πολυδύναμος πληθυσμός βλαστικών κυττάρων που δημιουργείται στη ραχιαία πλευρά του νευρικού σωλήνα των σπονδυλωτών κατά τη διάρκεια της νευριδίωσης. Μετά τη δημιουργία τους, τα κύτταρα της νευρικής ακρολοφίας μεταναστεύουν σε ολόκληρο το έμβρυο, ακολουθώντας συγκεκριμένα μονοπάτια, συνεισφέροντας στη δημιουργία μιας μεγάλης ποικιλίας δομών, όπως νευρικά και γλοιακά κύτταρα του περιφερικού νευρικού συστήματος (ΠΝΣ), μελανοκύττρα, δομές που συμβάλλουν στο σκελετό του κρανίου και του προσώπου κλπ. Η δημιουργία, η αυτο- ανανέωση και η διαφοροποίηση των κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας απαιτούν το συντονισμό των διεργασιών του κυτταρικού πολλαπλασιασμού και της κυτταρικής διαφοροποίησης. Η αδυναμία συντονισμού των παραπάνω διαδικασιών οδηγεί στην εμφάνιση ασθενειών στον άνθρωπο (neurocristopathies). Η Geminin είναι ένα μόριο που έχει την ικανότητα να ρυθμίζει την πρόοδο του κυτταρικού κύκλου, αλληλεπιδρώντας με τον παράγοντα αδειοδότησης της αντιγραφής Cdt1, και τη διαφοροποίηση, μέσω της αλληλεπίδρασής της με μεταγραφικούς παράγοντες και πρωτεΐνες αναδιαμόρφωσης της χρωματίνης. Προηγούμενες μελέτες του εργαστηρίου μας έχουν αναδείξει τη Geminin ως ένα σημαντικό ρυθμιστή των διαδικασιών της αυτο- ανανέωσης και διαφοροποίησης στα πρόδρομα νευρικά κύτταρα στον αναπτυσσόμενο φλοιό. Προκειμένου να κατανοήσουμε τους μηχανισμούς που ελέγχουν την αυτο-ανανέωση και τη διαφοροποίηση των πολυδύναμων κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας και να κατανοήσουμε το μοριακό μηχανισμό ασθενειών στον άνθρωπο που σχετίζονται με την απορρύθμιση του ελέγχου της ι κανότητας αυτο-ανανέωσης και διαφοροποίησης των πολυδύναμων κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας μελετήσαμε το ρόλο της Geminin στη δημιουργία, την αυτο-ανανέωση, τον καθορισμό και τη διαφοροποίηση των κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας. Προς αυτή την κατεύθυνση πραγματοποιήθηκαν τόσο in vivo όσο και in vitro πειράματα, χρησιμοποιώντας ζωικά μοντέλα τα οποία δημιουργήθηκαν από το εργαστήριο μας και στα οποία το γονίδιο της Geminin είχε αδρανοποιηθεί ειδικά στα κύτταρα της νευρικής ακρολοφίας. Τα αποτελέσματά μας έδειξαν ότι η απουσία της Geminin οδηγεί στη δημιουργία εμβρύων με σοβαρές μορφολογικές αλλοιώσεις, που κατά τα πρώιμα αναπτυξιακά στάδια χαρακτηρίζονται από την απουσία της δομής του μεσεγκεφάλου και των βραγχιακών τόξων και σε μεταγενέστερα αναπτυξιακά στάδια εμφανίζουν σοβαρή κρανιοπροσωπική δυσμορφία, με κατάληξη το θάνατο των εμβρύων, λίγες ημέρες πριν γεννηθούν. Επιπλέον, κατά τα πρώιμα αναπτυξιακά στάδια παρατηρήθηκαν σοβαρές αλλοιώσεις σε δομές που προέρχονται από τη νευρική ακρολοφία, όπως είναι τα κρανιακά και τα ραχιαία γάγγλια, οι γναθικές προεκβολές και τα πρόδρομα κύτταρα του εντερικού νευρικού συστήματος. Η μείωση του πληθυσμού των πρόδρομων κυττάρων του εντερικού νευρικού συστήματος (ΕΝΣ) οδήγησε στη δημιουργία ενός αγαγγλιονικού εντέρου, το οποίο παρομοιάζει με το φαινότυπο του ΕΝΣ στη νόσο Hirschsprung στον άνθρωπο. Η ιστοειδική αδρανοποίηση της Geminin οδήγησε στη μείωση των αδιαφοροποίητων κυττάρων νευρικής ακρολοφίας που δημιουργούνται στην αυχενική περιοχή του νευρικού σωλήνα και στην είσοδο μικρότερου αριθμού κυττάρων νευρικής ακρολοφίας στον γαστρεντερικό σωλήνα κατά τα πρώτα στάδια του αποικισμού του. Μελέτη των εντερικών κυττάρων νευρικής ακρολοφίας έδειξε ότι η αποσιώπηση της Geminin προκάλεσε την αύξηση της απόπτωσης κατά τις ηλικίες Ε9.5 και Ε10.5 και τη μείωση του κυτταρικού πολλαπλασιασμού τους κατά την ηλικία Ε9.5. Σε συνδυασμό με τη μειωμένη ικανότητα που δείχνουν τα πρόδρομα εντερικά κύτταρα να αυτο-ανανεώνονται, τα αποτελέσματά μας προτείνουν ότι η Geminin έχει σημαντικό ρόλο στην αυτο-ανανέωση και την επιβίωση των πρόδρομων κυττάρων του ΕΝΣ. Επιπλέον, η απουσία της Geminin οδηγεί στη μείωση των κυττάρων που έχουν καθορισμένη μοίρα και εκφράζουν τους δείκτες των πρόδρομων εντερικών κυττάρων Phox2b, Ret και Mash1, ενώ τα κύτταρα αυτά απουσία της Geminin παρουσιάζουν μειωμένη παραγωγή νευρικών κυττάρων, κατά την έναρξη της νευρωνικής διαφοροποίησης. Συμπερασματικά, τα αποτελέσματά μας αναδεικνύουν τη Geminin ως ένα σημαντικό μόριο κατά τη δημιουργία των πολυδύναμων κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας. Επίσης η Geminin είναι απαραίτητη για τη δημιουργία των κυττάρων της νευρικής ακρολοφίας που αποικίζουν το γαστρεντερικό σωλήνα, ενώ ρυθμίζει την επιβίωση και την αυτο-ανανέωσή τους, καθώς και τη μετάβασή τους από την αρχικά αδιαφοροποίητη/πολυδύναμη κατάσταση στην εντερική αναπτυξιακή μοίρα. Επιπλέον η απουσία της Geminin δημιουργεί μύες οι οποίοι μιμούνται τη νόσο του Hirschsprung και αποτελούν ένα σημαντικό ζωικό μοντέλο για τη μελέτη των μηχανισμών της μοριακή παθογένειας της νόσου αλλά και στην εύρεση νέων θεραπειών. / The neural crest is a multipotent cell population that is formed at the dorsal neural tube of vertebrate embryos during neurulation. After their formation, neural crest cells (NCCs) delaminate from the neural tube and migrate throughout the embryo following specific pathways, and give rise to a wide variety of structures, such as neural and glial cells of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), melanocytes, structures of the craniofacial skeleton, etc. Neural crest formation, self-renewal and differentiation require the coordination of proliferation and differentiation. Deregulation of these processes results in developmental diseases in humans, known as neurocristopathies. Geminin is a molecule that has the ability to regulate cell cycle progression and differentiation, through interactions with the licensing factor Cdt1, transcription factors and chromatin remodeling factors. Previous studies from our laboratory have shown that Geminin is an important regulator of self-renewal and differentiation of early cortical progenitors. In order to understand the mechanisms that control self-renewal and differentiation of multipotent neural crest cells (NCCs) and gain insight into the molecular mechanism of human diseases, we studied the role of Geminin in the formation, self-renewal and differentiation of NCCs. Towards this direction, we performed in vivo and in vitro experiments, using animal models that have been generated in our laboratory and allow the conditional inactivation of Geminin in neural crest cells. Our results showed that deletion of Geminin causes severe morphological malformations in embryos that are characterized by the absence of midbrain, branchial arches and severe craniofacial malformation. Mutant embryos are dying a few days before birth. Moreover, during early embryonic development, the neural crest-derived structures, such as cranial and dorsal root ganglia, the maxillary and the mandibular components, and enteric progenitor cells, were severely affected. The decrease of enteric neural crest cells resulted in the formation of aganglionic gut that resembles with the phenotype of Hirschsprung disease. The conditional inactivation of Geminin resulted in the decreased formation of naïve vagal neural crest cells, while enteric neural crest cells were dramatically reduced. Geminin deficient enteric neural crest sells show increased apoptosis at E9.5 and E10.5, and decreased cell proliferation at E9.5. These findings, combined with the decreased self-renewal capacity of enteric progenitor cells (EPCs) in vitro, suggest that Geminin is important for the self-renewal and the survival of ENS progenitor cells. In addition, deletion of Geminin resulted in decreased committed enteric neural crest cells, that express enteric progenitor markers Phox2b, Ret and Mash1. In conclusion, our results highlight Geminin as an important molecule during the formation of multipotent neural crest cells. Geminin is required for the formation of vagal neural crest cells that colonize the gastrointestinal tract, and regulates survival and selfrenewal of these cells, as well as their transition from a multipotent state to the committed enteric lineage of progenitor cells. Moreover, conditional inactivation of Geminin leads to Hirschsprung-like phenotype that could be used as model organisms to study disease pathogenesis and help in the discovery of new therapies.

L'hybridation et les maladies infectieuses sont deux problématiques majeures pour la conservation de la faune sauvage à travers le monde. Le Chat sauvage européen Felis silvestris silvestris, à travers ses interactions avec son proche apparenté le Chat domestique Felis silvestris catus, représente un modèle intéressant pour l'étude de ces deux problématiques et de leurs interactions. Le fait que le Chat sauvage soit touché par ces deux phénomènes, combiné à la variabilité des habitats dans lesquels il vit en Europe, permet de conduire des études comparées et de comprendre quels déterminants environnementaux influencent les flux de gènes et de pathogènes. Ici, nous proposons deux nouvelles approches méthodologiques basées sur l'analyse de marqueurs génétiques, pour une meilleure comparabilité entre études et une détection rapide des hybrides respectivement. Nous avons recherché les hybrides et regardé la distribution spatiale des individus apparentés dans deux populations locales divergeant principalement sur le niveau de fragmentation de l'environnement. Dans l'une de ces populations, nous avons également conduit une étude sérologique pour déterminer si les chats sauvages et domestiques échangeaient certains des virus communs du Chat domestique (PVF, HVF, CVF, VIF). Nous avons observé un taux d'hybridation plus élevé dans l'environnement le plus fragmenté. Malgré la ceinture de chats domestiques infectés à haute prévalence autour d'elle, la population de chats sauvages de ce même environnement n'était infectée par aucun des virus. La présence de barrières génétiques et/ou comportementales expliquerait ce résultat dans un environnement fragmenté permettant par ailleurs le maintien de souches généralistes. L'échantillonnage local présenté ici nous a permis de comprendre les mécanismes à la base de l'hybridation et de la circulation des virus. Présentement, le Chat sauvage européen ne semble pas menacé par le Chat domestique. Toutefois, des mesures préventives devraient être adoptées pour éviter que cela ne devienne le cas / Hybridization and infectious diseases are two major issues for wildlife conservation worldwide. The European wildcat Felis silvestris silvestris, through its interactions with its close relative the domestic cat Felis silvestris catus, represents a valuable model for the study of these two issues and their interactions. The European wildcat is both threatened by hybridization and infectious diseases. This, combined with the high diversity of environments where it lives throughout Europe, allows to lead comparative studies and to understand which environmental determinants impact gene and pathogen flows. Here we propose two new methodological developments for the detection of hybrids based on genetic markers allowing for a better comparability between studies and leading to a fast detection of hybrids respectively. Hybrid detection and assessment of spatial relatedness pattern were carried out in two local populations of European wildcats differing mostly on the level of fragmentation of their environment. On one of this population, we led a serological survey to investigate whether domestic cats and wildcats exchange some of the most common viruses of the domestic cat (FPV, FHV, FCV, FIV). We found a higher rate of hybridization in the most fragmented environment. There, the wildcat population, in spite of the domestic cats surrounding it that were infected at high prevalence with the viruses, was not infected by any of the viruses. The presence of genetic or behavioral barriers may explain this result in an environment that is not incompatible with the persistence of generalist strains. The local sampling achieved in this work allowed us to investigate mechanisms behind hybridization and viruses’ circulation. At the time, the European wildcat does not seem threatened by domestic cats. However, preventive measures should be taken to prevent a future increase in frequency of the phenomenon both for the control of gene and virus flows