Dry powder inhalers (DPIs) are breath actuated devices relying on the inhalation effort generated by the patients during the inhalation manoeuvre to de-aggregate and disperse the powder formulation and release the dose for lung deposition. The aerodynamic dose emission characteristics vary among patients depending on the maximum inhalation flow (MIF), the inhalation volume (Vin) and the initial acceleration of the inhalation manoeuvre (ACIM). The compendial method for in-vitro testing of DPIs uses a vacuum pump to represent the patient’s inhalation manoeuvre. Furthermore, the pharmacopoeia recommended the use of a MIF corresponding to 4 kPa pressure drop with a Vin of 4 L. The vacuum pump square wave profile cannot be replicated by humans, and it is by no mean representing the actual patient’s inhalation manoeuvre. Additionally, most of the patients and even healthy volunteer are unable to achieve the pharmacopoeia recommended inhalation parameters of MIF and Vin when inhaling through different DPIs. In this thesis, a wide range of MIFs and Vins were used to investigate the dose emission and aerodynamic characteristics of formoterol and indacaterol using the in-vitro methodology. Furthermore, an ex-vivo methodology using COPD patients’ inhalation profiles and simulated patients’ inhalation profiles was used instead of a vacuum pump to study the performance of the indacaterol Breezhaler®. The aim of the study was to initially investigate the effect of MIF and Vin on the dose emission and the aerodynamic dose emission of indacaterol (Onbrez Breezhaler® and formoterol (Aerolizer® and Easyhaler®) over a MIF range of 28.3, 60, 90 and 120 L/min and a Vin range of 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5 and 2 L. Secondly, to assess the effect of all three inspiratory parameters MIF, Vin and ACIM on the aerodynamic dose emission of indacaterol Breezhaler® using the ex-vivo methodology with both COPD patients’ inhalation profiles and simulated patient’s inhalation profiles. The formoterol dose emitted after the first inhalation (ED1) from the Aerolizer® significantly increased (p < 0.05) with increasing the III MIF and the Vin. Conversely, the dose emitted after the second inhalation (ED2) and the residual amount (RA) decreased significantly (p < 0.05) with increasing the MIF and Vin. The ED1 and RA (% of the nominal dose) at low MIF of 28.3 L/min and Vin 0.5 L were 45.91%, 34%. At high MIF 120 L/min and a Vin of 2 L, the ED1 and RA were 70.75%, 22.91%. The formoterol dose emission from Easyhaler® showed that increasing the Vin and MIF resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the total emitted dose (TED), the fine particle dose (FPD) and a significant decrease in the Mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) over a MIF range of 28.3, 60 and 90 L/min with a Vin range of 240, 750, 1500, 2000 mL. The increase in the Vin above 750 mL showed no improvement in the aerodynamic characteristics of formoterol from Easyhaler®. Similarly, the dose emission of indacaterol from Breezhaler® showed that the ED1 significantly increased (p < 0.05) with increasing the MIF, while both the ED2 and RA decreased. At a low MIF of 28.3 L/min and a Vin of 0.5 L, the ED1 and RA (% of the nominal dose) were 66.5% and 20.4%. In contrast, at a high MIF of 120 L/min and a Vin of 2 L, the ED1 and RA were 95.2% and 4.1% respectively. The dose strength study of indacaterol 150 μg and 300 μg showed that despite the difference observed in the carrier particle size, size distribution (SEM) and drug to carrier ratio yet both formulations produced a good drug content uniformity with a % CV < 1.8% and 100% dose recovery. The results of the dose emission and the aerodynamic characteristics followed the same trend for both dose strengths. The increase in the MIF and Vin resulted in an improvement in the aerodynamic characteristics of both formulations. The Breezhaler® device was able to generate particles within the extrafine range (≤ 3 μm) when a MIF of 60 L/min and above was used. Secondly, the performance of 150μg indacaterol Breezhaler® was evaluated using an ex-vivo method with COPD patients’ inhalation profiles. The results showed the importance of increasing the MIF on the dose emission characteristics of indacaterol dose emitted from Onbrez Breezhaler®. At a low MIF of 28.3 L/min, the TED and FPD were 92.0 μg ± 4.2 and IV 28.7 μg ±1.6 while at a high MIF of 87.8 L/min the TED and FPD were 125.1 μg ± 1.4 and 45.6 μg ± 0.8. The impact of the Vin and ACIM was difficult to be determined using COPD patients’ profiles. Therefore, simulated inhalation profiles (changing one parameter at a time) were used to identify the extent of each parameter. The results of the study showed that increasing both the Vin and the ACIM showed an impact on the dose emission characteristics of indacaterol. An increase in the Vin from 1 L to 3 L resulted in an increase in the TED and FPD with less impact on the MMAD. Similarly, increasing the ACIM from 2 L/s2 to 8 L/s2 increased the TED, FPD and more observed effect of the MMAD than the Vin. The results of in-vitro studies showed that a MIF of 30 L/min and a Vin of 750 mL were sufficient to de-aggregate the formoterol dose from a reservoir based Easyhaler®. The dose emission from capsule based inhalers Breezhaler® and Aerolizer® require a higher MIF > 60 L/min and patients are recommended to inhale twice in order to empty the capsule especially those with limited lung capacity. The use of an ex-vivo methodology is important for identifying the effect of all inhalation manoeuvre parameters. Although the MIF is the dominant factor in the dose emission from DPIs, increasing both ACIM and Vin resulted in an improvement in the aerodynamic characteristics of indacaterol Breezhaler® that explains the recommendations of forceful, deep and prolonged inhalation manoeuvre for patients using DPIs.

In unexplained death cases it is important to be able to determine the role (if any) of the drugs detected may have played in the death. However, drug concentrations can change between the time of death and the time of the analysis of the post-mortem sample, thus the concentration of the drug detected needs to be interpreted with caution. Post-mortem redistribution (PMR) is a process that involves the passive movement of drugs after death that can lead to changes in post-mortem drug concentrations at certain sites after death. In addition, other factors that could account for post-mortem changes include the environment in which an individual is found, as certain environments could accelerate decomposition, also the circumstances surrounding the death and the length of time between the death and recovery of the body. Certain organs including lungs, liver, and heart are depots of drugs for PMR as they can have higher concentrations than surrounding sites. The bladder has traditionally not been considered a possible depot for PMR. However one study, a case report, published in Japan discussing an individual that had a PMI of nine days with higher concentrations of diphenhydramine and dihydrocodeine in the femoral vein compared to the cardiac blood, has suggested that it may be. There have been no further studies to elucidate any possible role of the bladder in the PMR process. The aim of this thesis was to determine if the bladder is a potential site for PMR and to develop methodology to allow further study. The investigation included the influence of temperature, pH, porcine bladder degradation, and solution volume on diffusion from the bladder using in vitro diffusion through porcine bladder sections, whole porcine bladders and finally in vivo diffusion from the bladder in rat models over nine days. This thesis looked at three methods to investigate the possible diffusion of drugs from the bladder. 1) porcine bladder sections; 2) whole porcine bladders and 3) whole rats. The initial method used Franz Cells to determine the diffusion of rhodamine B, amitriptyline and amitriptyline’s metabolite nortriptyline across the porcine bladder wall. Acceptor chamber solutions were 20 mM pH 7.4 phosphate buffer (PBS) and 20 mM pH 5 ammonium acetate (AA). Donor solutions, dependent on experiment, contained 100 mg/L rhodamine B or amitriptyline and nortriptyline in the respective solutions. Sampling was over five days. Parameters included temperature (37 °C, 20 °C, and 5 °C), pH (7.4, 5), intra-variability of porcine bladder diffusion and tissue degradation. Quantitation methods of rhodamine B (UV, Agilent, Cary 60), amitriptyline, and nortriptyline (HPLC, Dionex Ultimate 3000) were validated according to SWGTOX guidelines. The femoral vein has been stated as the best site for sampling post-mortem blood and interpretation due to the isolation from the main viscera. However, due to the above case report suggesting redistribution from the bladder this is a possible factor that could affect this sampling site. The porcine bladder sections and whole porcine bladders were analysed to determine how much drug would diffuse through the tissue over the first 100 hrs after death, which is the initial steps in determining the likelihood of drugs diffusing from the bladder to the femoral vein. Whole porcine bladder studies used the validated UV method for rhodamine B. Experimental temperature was 20 °C. Full and half-filled porcine bladders contained rhodamine B (100 or 200 mg/L) dissolved in pH 7.4 PBS and pH 5 AA. Triplicate analysis performed using the UV spectrophotometer at 554 nm. The in-vivo study involved catheterizing a rat and inserting silver nitrate into the bladder then securing it for Computed Tomography (CT) analysis over nine days. There was increased diffusion of all three drugs at physiological temperature (37°C) with a peak rhodamine B concentration of 3.46 ± 2.72 mg/L (intra-bladder, pH 5), 6.69 mg/L and 6.69 ± 4.76 mg/L for amitriptyline and nortriptyline respectively (pH 7.4). The other parameters including solution pH and tissue degradation showed no significant difference for drugs diffusing through the bladder over 5 days. Concentration and volume was not a factor for rhodamine B diffusing through the whole porcine bladder tissue. There was an increase in drug diffusion over the five days with a peak concentration of 3.5 ± 1.02 mg/L (pH 7.4). The rat bladder was intact for two days, and then between 2-6 days, an opening was observed with leakage of solution. However, after day 7 this solution was not observed on the CT image. The CT data show that it is a good technique for the detection of diffusion of ions from the bladder, but would need to be further developed to look at the diffusion of larger molecular weight organic molecules. Based on this work, methods for investigating the diffusion of drugs across the bladder have been developed and validated. The use of μCT shows promise for the further visualization of PMR to investigate not only diffusion from the bladder but also diffusion from other drug depots in the body. However, based on this work it is unlikely that the bladder is a significant source of PMR to the femoral vein, at least in PMI of less than 100 hours after death.

1,2,3-Triazoles have proven to be highly successful in ligand design due to their facile synthesis owing to the advent of the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction. The Cu(I) species necessary for the CuAAC reaction can be generated in situ with simple purification of the resulting 1,4-disubstituted products and has proven to be an outstanding method to prepare triazole-containing ligands. The present work focuses on the synthesis, characterization and photophysical investigation of triazole-containing transition metal complexes and their possible use in applications, such as LECs and biological cell imaging. To explore this wide topic different types of 1,2,3-triazole containing ligands including 2-(1-benzyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)pyridine as a bidentate ligand, 2,6-bis(1-phenyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)pyridine as a tridentate ligand and 1,4-bis((4-(pyridin-2-yl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-1-yl)methyl)benzene as a bridging ligand. were prepared and used with Re(I), Os(II), Ru(II) and Ir(III) transition metals. Chapter 2 deals with rhenium complexes [Re(CO)3(Bn-pytz)(X)]+/0 (X = Cl or substituted pyridine). The photophysical investigation indicates that the emission can be further shifted towards the blue by replacing the Cl- ligand with pyridine. Two of these complexes were utilised in preliminary tests as the phosphor in light-emitting electrochemical cell LEC devices. In Chapter 3 a series of osmium(II) complexes [Os(bpy)3−n(Bn-pytz)n](PF6)2 (where bpy = bipyridine, n = 1, 2, 3) were prepared and characterised. The progressive replacement of bpy by Bn-pytz leads to blue-shifted UV-visible electronic absorption and emission spectra. Successful separation of the fac and mer isomers of [Os(Bn-pytz)3](PF6)2 complexes was achieved, which exhibits phosphorescence (λem = 615 nm, in degassed acetonitrile). [Os(Bn-pytz)3][PF6]2 was shown to exhibit significant quenching of luminescence intensity in the presence of oxygen (Ksv = 83 atm-1). The water soluble chloride form of the complexes were prepared and were subjected to preliminary cellular uptake and luminescence imaging microscopy studies. The results from these studies reveal that the [Os(Bn-pytz)3]2+ is successfully taken up by two cancer cell lines. Bright emission from [Os(Bn-pytz)3]2+ can be seen by confocal microscopy with localisation at the lysosomes, however, no photodynamic therapy (PDT) activity is observed. Described in Chapter 4 is the synthesis, characterisation and photophysical investigation of an osmium(II) 2,6-bis(1-phenyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)pyridine (btzpy) complex. From photophysical investigations [Os(btzpy)2](PF6)2 exhibits phosphorescence (λem = 595 nm, τ = 937 ns, φem = 9.3% in degassed acetonitrile). The complex undergoes significant oxygen-dependent quenching of emission with a 43-fold reduction in luminescence intensity between degassed and aerated acetonitrile solutions (Ksv = 110 atm-1), demonstrating its capability as a singlet oxygen sensitiser. The water soluble chloride form of the complex was prepared on the basis of the photophysical properties and was subject to preliminary cellular uptake and luminescence microscopy imaging studies. The complex easily entered the HeLa and U2OS cancer cell lines with mitochondrial localisation observed with intense emission permitting imaging at reduced concentrations up to 1 μM. Long-term dose toxicity results show low toxicity in HeLa cells with LD50 >100 μM. Described in Chapter 5 is the synthesis and characterisation of a range of dinuclear supramolecular complexes, containing a bridging ligand incorporating the 1,2,3-triazole moiety. The homonuclear complexes ([Ir(ppy)2-L-Ir(ppy)2](PF6)2, [Ru(bpy)2-L-Ru(bpy)2](PF6)4, [Os(bpy)2-L-Os(bpy)2](PF6)4 and [Os(Bn-pytz)2-L-Os(Bn-pytz)2](PF6)4 and heteronuclear complex ([Ru(bpy)2-L-Ir(ppy)2](PF6)3 (where L = 1,4-{bis-4-(pyrid-2-yl)-1,2,3-triazol-1-yl methyl}benzene) were prepared. Photophysical studies show that the dinuclear species display greater luminescence intensities than their mononuclear model complexes. The emission spectra of the heteronuclear complex [Ru(bpy)2-L-Ir(ppy)2](PF6)3, exhibits features similar to those observed in the emission spectra of the mononuclear complexes [Ir(ppy)2-L](PF6) and [Ru(bpy)2-L](PF6)2. This indicates dual emission occurs from both the Ir- and Ru-centred chromophores (φem = 0.33% in acetonitrile). Interestingly the emission from the Ru-centred chromophore seems greatly enhanced relative to the emission of the Ru mononuclear analogue. This indicates partial energy transfer from Ir to Ru. The dual emission results in near white light emission and could be used for the devolpment of single component white light emitting phosphors.

Resilient bars provide cheap, effective sound insulation. They are increasingly popular in timber floor/ceiling assemblies in the UK following the upgrading of Building Regulations requirements. However, the behaviour mechanisms providing resilient bars with their insulating properties are not well understood. The effects of specific detailed features on their performance are assumed or estimated empirically. Myths relating to property-performance correlation prevail among various product manufacturers. Previous experimental studies revealed either overall effect or only covered the stiffness in the vertical direction. Spring and rod models used elsewhere also failed to predict three-dimensional, asymmetrical facets of resilient bar behaviour. This research investigated the influence of various three-dimensional resilient bar features through examining hypotheses: resilient bars act as springs (either vertical, bending, cantilever or spring hinge), or stiffeners. As these hypotheses are associated with certain material and geometrical features, the results revealed each's influence and relative importance. Three types of test were designed: vibration transmission, apparent stiffness and modal tests. Two representative but distinctly different resilient bar products were chosen as test subjects, which covered the features of interest and involved controversies. Vibration transmission tests were conducted on a series of configurations based on small-scale structures, which could not only demonstrate overall performance but allow detailed parametric investigations. Apparent stiffness tests on small samples enable isolation of spring effects so that their individual contribution could be evaluated. Modal tests revealed how resilient bars modified the vibration modes of the attached plate. By synthesizing the data from the above three angles together with data in the literature, the influence of key features was inferred and evaluated. Mass-spring-mass modelling and statistical energy analysis were carried oout which enhanced understanding of the system's behaviour. The findings led to an optimised resilient bar design and a patentable acoustic hanger system. The latter was prototyped and tested on a floor/ceiling assembly. The results showed that it was more advantageous than current resilient bar systems.

No description available.

The development and fabrication injection of moulding tools is complex and demands highly skilled personal. The research aim is to study the effect of surface roughness on mould filling and the ejection of parts for amorphous and semicrystalline polymers. This study is to simulate and analyse polymers used and investigates the ejection force needed for different selected polymer resins for a series of cavity and core inserts with different surface roughnesses. Mould filling and comparison studies for polymers used also were carried out. Three common thermoplastics polymers were used for the cylindrical part: two amorphous thermoplastics: high impact polystyrene and an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and a semi-crystalline polyamide. These three thermoplastics were selected due to these polymers are engineering materials being widely used in automotive parts, in the casing of household products and in gears. Apart from that there are different processing conditions for an amorphous and crystalline thermoplastic in terms of melting temperature, injection pressure, packing pressure and cooling times which are considered in this study. A two-cavity prototype tool for cylindrically shaped components was fabricated with variations in wall thickness by using a series of core inserts each with a different surface roughness. The part was constructed using CAD software and simulated in Autodesk Moldflow Insight 2010-R2 (AMI 2010-R2) in order to carry out the simulation works to obtain the required processing parameters for the injection moulding process. The application of simulation software packages for mould design and injection moulding process are vital in order to optimise the part quality and satisfy the market needs. For amorphous thermoplastics there is no melting point in terms of physical properties and having a high toughness due to butadiene chain present, in this case both for high impact polystyrene and an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. Since polyamide has a viscosity lower than these two amorphous thermoplastics, the processing conditions and pressure will be different which can be identified through the melt flow rate of the resin. Polyamide also has a higher density which is 1.14 g/cm3 compared with high impact polystyrene and an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene which were 1.04 g/cm3 and 1.04 g/cm3 respectively. The study concludes that polyamide resin requires a shorter cavity filling time and less pressure compared with an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene resin. Polyamide also requires high ejection forces due to surface texture generated as compared with high impact polystyrene and an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. The mathematical model results for the ejection force closely agree with the experimental data for the three materials used.

Cement production requires intensive use of natural raw materials and energy. It also results in emissions to the atmosphere, the most significant being COZ. Studies estimate that the cement industry is responsible for 5% of global man-made COZ emissions. Managing and reducing these emissions is therefore a key priority. Cement emissions come from the following sources: chemical clinker-making process (50%-60 %), combustion of fossil fuels (40%), and indirect emissions from purchased electrical power (5%). This research has been carried out with the main objective of assessing the environmental impact of cement production and the potential for reducing its CO2 emissions. To achieve this objective, the performances of three cement companies were investigated and specific indicators set to measure the development of each company and benchmark the performances against each other. The research takes into account social, economic and environmental factors. The assessment used in this study is based on the WBCSD initiatives and its sustainability approach to cement production. This assessment has been conducted by indicating the best performance cement company and displaying the weak points of each of the benchmarked companies. This benchmark was used not only to estimate the environmental impact of cement operations and production among best performance companies, but also to determine new opportunities for efficient cement production, energy efficiency consumption, and low COZ emissions. This study used the benchmark to analyse the Lafarge, Holcim, and Taiheiyo cement companies. The research investigation is based on the review and analyses of data collected during authorised visits to the operating sites of each of these cement companies. Further required data was obtained from the companies' Sustainable Development Reports. A procedure for developing comparable environmental performance indicators, useful for benchmarking, has been described. This procedure has been used to develop key Environmental Performance Indicators, also taking into account economic and social .performance. Both strengths and weaknesses are pointed out in different sections of the case studies. First, the benchmark, the resources to be included and the return figures play a determinant role in the quality of the results. Second, the assessment of environmental performance was evaluated by using specific indicators, including the imperatives indicators to investigate options for reducing COZ emissions throughout the process of manufacturing. The chief original contribution of this research is to identify the opportunities and potential for reducing the CO2 released from cement production, and to develop a model to allow evaluations to be made at different times during the cement manufacturing process of different cement companies, with varying priority levels of selected environmental performance indicators. Recommendations are made to manufacturers and the cement market in order to achieve higher levels of environmental performance (that is, less COZ emissions). This work opens new horizons for further research in this field.

Trip generation is the first stage of the conventional 'four-stage' transport model. The aim of this stage is to predict total number of trips generated to and from each zone. The two most common techniques for trip generation are linear regression (the dependent vaziable is alinear-in-parameter function of a number of explanatory variables) and category analysis including multiple classification analysis (based on estimating number of trip generations as a function of household attributes). Both techniques of trip generation rely on the availability of a large socio-economic, mainly revealed preference data set. They also have technical limitations such as the assumption of linearity which might result in unreasonable predictions of trip generation. Any deficiency or inaccuracy in the estimation at this stage will be carried over and will have implications on subsequent stages. The other stages of the 'four-stage' model employ other techniques including logistic analysis which broadens the scope of the analysis. Logistic regression analysis has been used to model travel choices such as mode, route and departure time but not trip generation. There has not been much research to investigate the appropriateness of using this technique to model generation. The main reason for this is that logistic regression predicts probabilities rather than the total number of trips. In order to be able to model trip generation using logistic regression, the number of trips frequency) can be treated as a set of mutually exclusive categorical variables; therefore the built-in upper and lower limits are incorporated. Therefore, it is not possible to predict a negative number of trips and the estimates of the model will show the underlying probabilities for the actual number of This will also provide a behavioural framework that directly links the number of trips to utility-based consumer and decision-making theory. Logistic regression can be used to model trip generation as binary, multinomial or nested logit frameworks. An added advantage of using this approach is the ability to predict the frequency and number of trips made by each individual. The aim of this research therefore, is to investigate possible methodologies to improve performance of trip generation modelling. In order to achieve this aim firstly, this research investigates the appropriateness of logistic regression to model trip generation and device a methodology for it. The analysis and comparisons of the results with results from conventional models are examined. Exploring the use of stated preference data to calibrate trip generation models is also studied here. Finally, transport policy measures and enhanced transport accessibility functions have been investigated in generation models.

Until now texture has been largely viewed as a statistical or holistic paradigm: textures are described as a whole and by summary statistics. In this thesis it is assumed that there is a structure underlying the texture leading to models, reconstruction and to scale based analysis. Local Binary Patterns are used throughout as the basis functions for texture and methods have been developed to reconstruct texture images from arrays of their LBP codes. The reconstructed images contain identical texture properties to the original; providing the same array of LBP codes. An evidence gathering approach has been developed to provide a model for each texture class based on the spatial structure of these elements throughout the image. This method, called Evidence Gathering Texture Segmentation, provides good results for segmentation with smooth boundaries and minimal oversegmentation, when compared with existing methods. Analysing microand macro-structures confers ability to include scale in texture analysis. A novel combination of lowpass and highpass filters produces images devoid of structures at certain scales; allowing both the micro- and macro-structures to be analysed without occlusion by other scales of texture within the image. A two stage training process is used to learn the optimum filter sizes and to produce model histograms for each known texture class. The process, called Accumulative Filtering, gives superior results compared to the best multiresolution LBP configuration and analysis only using lowpass filters. By reconstruction, by evidence gathering and by analysis of micro- and macro-structures, new capabilities are described to exploit structure within the analysis of texture.

Outsourcing within the logistics and supply chain sector is perceived as a method to save money and improve client service levels. The outsourcing process exists within a highly stratified market of service provision and high value commercial arrangements may extend over many years. The client has a responsibility to define the strategy for their supply chain and agree distribution channel objectives which support the wider organisation’s brand delivery. There is a variety of solutions to satisfy these objectives of which outsourcing is one and should be accompanied by clear success criteria as well as a governance structure in order to yield a long term successful commercial arrangement. It is perceived that organisations may not follow an iterative approach towards outsourcing and that failing to adhere to these principles results in a lack of satisfaction for both parties evidenced by high contract turnover rates. This Phd thesis has investigated the issue of solution design within outsourced logistics amongst a group of 400 senior logistics managers through case studies, interviews and a three round Delphi survey. The hypothesis for this investigation was ‘the length and stability of an outsourcing relationship is directly related to the amount of effort expended by the customer in designing their logistics solution’. It was found that clients develop logistics strategy in varying degrees and over varying timescales. Clients measure the cost of supply chain activities with varying frequencies and few follow a straight forward method to define the parameters of a successful supply chain. Within outsourcing arrangements, governance and the management of change were poorly interpreted and executed. The current and future stratifications of logistics service offerings relied on a degree of collaboration between the pursuant parties and it was difficult to determine the effectiveness of these approaches when the balance of power between the parties was so unequal. Both clients and service providers were found to be poorly prepared to grasp the opportunities presented by the rising costs of energy and the future demands of reducing carbon intensity within the sector. Contributions were defined in terms of service level stratification and likely risk, behaviours and a toolkit for clients to observe when working within the outsourced environment as well as the opportunities presented by the changes currently influencing the sector. In conclusion, the hypothesis was found to be valid and the important role the client has to play in specifying and managing their logistics service provision was applicable across the logistics and supply chain industry.