Studies in the history of architecture tend to focus on form, leading to a narrow emphasis on visual aesthetics. Adopting an anthropological perspective my research sets out to widen this understanding, by considering how architectural knowledge influences conceptual orientation and how this, in turn, affects the perception of the environment and subsequent decision-making processes and ways of working. Specifically the research explores the problems and potentials of the introduction of computer aided design (CAD) tools into architectural working practices and how this impacts on existing traditions and relations with the environment. The argument focuses on the relations between agents and technologies, and on the representation of these relations, working between the realms of the abstract and the material. Within the architectural design process, knowledge is shown to be situated, embodying a process of thinking and acting within a social context. This challenges the assumptions that action is controlled by an interior process of thought, and that thinking is separate from doing. My findings show that architects do not separate thinking from doing during the developmental phases of a design process. I argue that the interrelations between human perception, creativity, innovation and skill, within a group design process, should be understood in context, hot as abstractions but as grounded in the activities of persons within a field of social relations. My research focuses on the following areas: the interrelations between tools and landscapes of use; simulation, automation and control of human movements; processes of representation and transformation in the domains of vision, verbal dialogue, touch and manipulation; self-definition and identity formation within sociotechnical relations; doubt, hesitation and the creative process; problems of acquiring and sharing knowledge between disciplines and across sites; visual thinking and decision-making processes; correlates of tool-use, imitation and learning. Ethnographic material was gathered during sixteen months of fieldwork, between September 1997 and June 1999. Field research was conducted principally in Norway, Finland and Denmark. It involved thirty structured interviews, unstructured discussions, archival research, the development of a seminar and participation in a multi-disciplinary workshop involving a systems designer, a cultural historian, and an anthropologist. Professionals from the building industry, systems designers, historians of science and technology, anthropologists and philosophers were involved in the project. Interviews were conducted in Norwegian and English. The bulk of the Norwegian field research was conducted in the city of Tromso in collaboration with a number of architectural practices. During the final four months, I was working with an architectural practice in Oslo while undertaking a case study of how CAD technologies were incorporated into the design process for the new Alexandria Library in Egypt. My research shows that CAD technologies are being incorporated into working processes as means of reinforcing traditional practices. The capacity of CAD technologies to assemble diverse kinds of information is understood by a number of architects as a way of regaining control over the building process. At the same time, developments in the design of CAD technologies directly impact upon how architects understand the performative aspects of traditional knowledge systems within the architectural design process. The thesis demonstrates how anthropological studies of technology can help to understand the relations between agents and technologies in new ways. It offers an enhanced understanding of what is meant by situated action, especially with regard to the dynamic interrelations between gesture and speech. Moreover the study highlights the contribution that anthropological knowledge can make concerning the problem of human/machine communication. Finally, the thesis presents new ethnographic material in an area of the anthropology of technology - namely, architectural design - which to date has been little studied.

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The work described in this thesis deals with two particular issues relating to the effective delivery of Architectural information that includes textual, 2D graphics and 3D graphic information to small mobile digital devices on location. These issues were investigated, and a solution was suggested in this thesis as part of an ongoing research project, 'City in the Palm of your Hand', that is being applied in the city of Liverpool, UK. The outcomes have broader implications for other applications of the theories and technologies related to pedestrian guides.

Optimisation and related techniques are well suited to clearly defined problems involving systems that can be accurately simulated, but not to tasks in which the phenomena in question are highly complex or the problem ill-defined. These latter are typical of architecture and particularly creative design tasks, which therefore currently lack viable computational tools. It is argued that as design teams and construction projects of unprecedented scale are increasingly frequent, this is just where such optimisation and communication tools are most needed. This research develops a method by which to address complex design problems, by using inductive machine learning from example precedents either to approximate the behaviour of a complex system or to define objectives for its optimisation. Two design domains are explored. A structural problem of the optimisation of stiffness and mass of fine scale, modular space frames has relatively clearly defined goals, but a highly complex geometry of many interconnected members. A spatial problem of the layout of desks in the workplace addresses the social relationships supported by the pattern of their arrangement, and presents a design situation in which even the problem objectives are not known. These problems are chosen to represent a range of scales, types and sources of complexity against which the methods can be tested. The research tests two hypotheses in the context of these domains, relating to the simulation of a system and to communication between the designer and the machine. The first hypothesis is that the underlying structure and causes of a system’s behaviour must be understood to effectively predict or simulate its behaviour. This hypothesis is typical of modelling approaches in engineering. It is falsified by demonstrating that a function can be learned that models the system in question—either optimising of structural stiffness or determining desirable spatial patterns—without recourse to a bottom up simulation of that system. The second hypothesis is that communication of the behaviour of these systems to the machine requires explicit, a priori definitions and agreed upon conventions of meaning. This is typical of classical, symbolic approaches in artificial intelligence and still implicitly underlies computer aided design tools. It is falsified by a test equivalent to a test of linguistic competence, showing that the computer can form a concept of, and satisfy, a particular requirement that is implied only by ostensive communication by examples. Complex, ill-defined problems are handled in practice by hermeneutic, reflective processes, criticism and discussion. Both hypotheses involve discerning patterns caused by the complex structure from the higher level behaviour only, forming a predictive approximation of this, and using it to produce new designs. It is argued that as these abilities are the input and output requirements for a human designer to engage in the reflective design process, the machine can thus be provided with the appropriate interface to do so, resulting in a novel means of interaction with the computer in a design context. It is demonstrated that the designs output by the computer display both novelty and utility, and are therefore a potentially valuable contribution to collective creativity.

This thesis proceeds from an analysis of practice and critical commentary to claim that the opportunities presented to some architectural practices by the advent of ubiquitous digital technology have not been properly exploited. The missed opportunities, it claims, can be attributed largely to the retention of a model of time and spaces as discrete design parameters, which is inappropriate in the context of the widening awareness of social interconnectedness that digital technology has also facilitated. As a remedy, the thesis shows that some social considerations essential to good architecture - which could have been more fully integrated in practice and theory more than a decade ago - can now be usefully revisited through a systematic reflection on an emerging use of web technologies that support social navigation. The thesis argues through its text and a number of practical projects that the increasing confidence and sophistication of interdisciplinary studies in geography, most notably in human geography, combined with the technological opportunities of social navigation, provide a useful model of time and space as a unified design parameter. In so doing the thesis suggests new possibilities for architectural practices involving social interaction. Through a literature review of the introduction and development of digital technologies to architectural practice, the thesis identifies the inappropriate persistence of a number of overarching concepts informing architectural practice. In a review of the emergence and growth of 'human geography' it elaborates on the concept of the social production of space, which it relates to an analysis of emerging social navigation technologies. In so doing the thesis prepares the way for an integration of socially aware architecture with the opportunities offered by social computing. To substantiate its claim the thesis includes a number of practical public projects that have been specifically designed to extend and amplify certain concepts, along with a large-scale design project and systematic analysis which is intended to illustrate the theoretical claim and provide a model for further practical exploitation.

To address important global challenges regarding climate change and urbanisation, architects and engineers require new methods of designing efficient, performance- oriented structures. An emerging approach looks to nature for inspiration and seeks to utilise computation early within the design process to create bio-inspired, performance-driven structures. Indeed, natural structures are often much more complex and efficient than anything we can design by hand, thus the ability to harness nature's underlying processes in computation would provide significant advances for architectural design and contribute new territories for performance- oriented design. However, existing computational models are limited to addressing relatively simple design problems and have not yet been able to synthesise complex material structures as nature does. This research proposes a new and interdisciplinary trajectory for architectural design which focuses on computational processes of form generation that require minimal direct human guidance. Significantly, it is argued that such models could provide ways of dealing with complex design problems and thereby greatly extend existing approaches. Using a series of experiments, this research proposes, develops and interrogates a novel computational model which is inspired by principles gene regulation and evolutionary-developmental biology. The results contribute a novel method of automatically designing efficient material-based structures, from scratch, and demonstrate rich trajectories for further research in the emerging field of computational design synthesis.

No description available.

This thesis is concerned with the application of computation in the context of professional architectural practice and specifically towards defining complex buildings that are highly integrated with respect to design and engineering performance. The thesis represents applied research undertaken whilst in practice at Foster + Partners. It reviews the current state of the art of computational design techniques to quickly but flexibly model and analyse building options. The application of parametric design tools to active design projects is discussed with respect to real examples as well as methods to then link the geometric definitions to structural engineering analysis, to provide performance data in near real time. The practical interoperability between design software and engineering tools is also examined. The role of performance data in design decision making is analysed by comparing manual work-flows with methods assisted by computation. This extends to optimisation methods which by making use of design automation actively make design decisions to return optimised results. The challenges and drawbacks of using these methods effectively in real deign situations is discussed, especially the limitations of these methods with respect to incomplete problem definitions, and the design exploration resulting in modified performance requirements. To counter these issues a performance driven design work flow is proposed. This is a mixed initiative whereby designer centric understanding and decisions are computer assisted. Flexible meta-design descriptions that encapsulate the variability of the design space under consideration are explored and compared with existing optimisation approaches. Computation is used to produce and visualise the performance data from these large design spaces generated by parametric design descriptions and associated engineering analysis. Novel methods are introduced that define a design and performance space using cluster computing methods to speed up the generation of large numbers of options. The use of data visualisation is applied to design problems, showing how in real situations it can aid design orientation and decision making using the large amount of data produced. Strategies to enable these work-flows are discussed and implemented, focusing on re-appropriating existing web design paradigms using a modular approach concentrating on scalable data creation and information display.

Building designs in countries like the United Kingdom are currently checked manually against a frequently changing and increasingly complex set of building regulations. It is a major task for designers and those bodies that are charged with enforcing building regulations. As a result, there can often be ambiguity, inconsistency in assessments and delays in the overall construction process. This scenario indicates the need for automated building regulation compliance checking, which is an easier and valid option. As part of this, a critical review is carried out of the building code compliance checking related efforts undertaken in different countries, including Australia, Singapore, Australia, Norway and USA. Furthermore, it is determined that the use of Building Information Models (BIM) and the Industry Foundation Class (IFC) standard is imperative for automated compliance checking in England and Wales. Most of the initiatives mentioned above focuses on creating object based rules and mapping the entities encapsulated within them to the international building model schema. The schema is designed to support the needs of an international user and takes little consideration of national semantics (e.g. UK practice and culture). Hence, the research focuses on creating UK building regulation specific data model schema. The analysis of Part-B1 through knowledge formalisation has resulted in identification of over 120 semantic entities. Using the output, a Part-B1 data model schema has been developed using EXPRESS-G language. Thus, an England and Wales building regulation specific, semantically rich, object model schema appropriate for the requirements of automated compliance checking has been developed. The data model schema development results into a document modeling method. This method was developed in a manner such that it would be applicable to model any building regulation technical document. The development of a document modeling method acts as a contribution to the knowledge as building experts, rule authors and computer programmers can use it for data modeling. The said methodology was implemented on a sample legislative document to validate its usefulness. Also through the research work, concepts such as knowledge formalisation and a clause filter system were coined and successfully utilised to overcome the issues related to unsuitability of building regulations. This work accounts as a contribution to knowledge due to its novelty. A clause filter system was developed primarily to extract appropriate information suitable for automated compliance checking. On the basis of various key findings, a detailed framework for automated compliance checking of the UK building regulations is delivered through the research work.

La planification est essentielle pour la réussite des projets d'Architecture, Ingénierie et Construction (AIC). La simulation 4D de la construction est une approche innovante qui associe un modèle 3D de l'ouvrage au planning des activités de manière à en simuler la réalisation à travers le temps. Plusieurs travaux ont montré que la simulation 4D est particulièrement intéressante pour la comparaison de la constructibilité des ouvrages et des méthodes de travail, pour l'identification des conflits et des chevauchements, mais aussi comme un outil de collaboration pour les différents acteurs afin de discuter et planifier l'avancement du projet. La planification de la construction est une activité largement collaborative. Pourtant, l'usage collaboratif de la simulation 4D reste limité, notamment à cause du manque d'adaptation des vues manipulées. En effet, la plupart des outils 4D actuels, même s'ils proposent cette « simulation collaborative » comme argument commercial, se contentent de proposer les mêmes vues « standards » à tous les acteurs. Pourtant les méthodes de travail traditionnelles dans le secteur s'appuient sur différentes représentations visuelles que les professionnels ont l'habitude de choisir en fonction de leurs besoins particuliers. L'hypothèse de cette recherche doctorale considère que les vues proposées dans les outils de simulation collaborative 4D devraient être adaptées aux besoins de chacun des acteurs impliqués. L'objectif est de proposer une méthode de conception de vues multiples adaptées aux réels besoins métiers des participants à une simulation collaborative 4D. À cet effet, la recherche étudie les pratiques de planification dans le secteur de la construction, les théories de visualisation de l'information et de conception de vues, ainsi que le travail collaboratif assisté par ordinateur / Planning is crucial for the success of Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) projects. 4D construction simulation is an innovative approach that combines a 3D model of the building with the planning of activities in order to simulate its realization over time. Several studies have shown that 4D simulations are particularly useful for comparing the constructability of structures and working methods for the identification of conflict and overlap, but also as a collaborative tool for stakeholders to discuss and plan the project progress. The construction planning is largely collaborative. However, the use of collaborative 4D simulation is still limited, mainly because of the lack of adaptation of views proposed to users. Indeed, most current 4D tools, even if they offer this ?collaborative simulation? as sales argument, simply offer the same "standard" views to all users. Yet traditional working methods in the sector rely on different visual representations that professionals usually choose according to their specific needs. The hypothesis of this doctoral research considers that the views proposed in 4D collaborative simulation tools should be adapted to the needs of each stakeholder involved. The objective is to propose a method to design 4D multiple views adapted to the real business needs of participants in a collaborative 4D simulation. Thus, the research examines planning practices in the construction sector, and theories from Information Visualization, views design, and Computer-Supported Collaborative Work fields