The socio-technological transformation of digital games means that they are no longer single-player, co-located game experiences but instead are multiplayer socially-oriented ones (e.g. World of Warcraft). This change underpins the central concern of this thesis, to understand game appropriation and the intrinsically motivating nature of gaming. Game appropriation is defined as the broad incorporation of Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs) into gamers’ daily practices, including the nature of their gameplay. Gaming is not viewed as a set of defined moments of participation but as a dynamic activity, directly interrelated with a gamers’ everyday life. Therefore, a broad perspective on motivation and gaming is adopted, incorporating not only reinforcing aspects of game design but also acknowledging the role of the social context and the gamer as an individual during gameplay. The findings of three studies showed that game design, social interaction and gamers’ psychological characteristics uniquely interplay to support game appropriation. The key findings are: (i) Flexible game design is a prerequisite for game appropriation; multiple game structures enable the creation of collaborative and competitive relationships and contribute to innovative forms of play; (ii) Diverse forms of social interaction, within and around gameplay, define the nature of game appropriation; (iii) The role of the gamer in game appropriation is critical. The gamer as an individual is the agent defining the distinct social forms of play when shaping the game experience, underpinned by certain psychological characteristics. While gamers with higher trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) play for social interaction per se, those with lower trait EI make purposive use of sociality in order to progress and succeed in the game. Similarly, on a needs scale (Basic Psychological Needs Scale) lower scorers on autonomy are more prone to competitive and instrumental social gaming practices; (iv) The process of game appropriation is progressively developed, influenced by the type of in-game activities and novel game features, trait EI scores and the presence of other gamers in the game. In summary, game appropriation, being game-specific, begins with the interaction between the gamer and a flexible game design and becomes socially negotiated within a community of gamers. The final social configuration -instrumental or social per se- is influenced by certain psychological characteristics of gamers as individuals.

This thesis is intended to be a contribution to the history of tourism. It examines the Grand Tour from the perspective of tourism studies. The primary source material was a sample of Grand Tour diaries and journals and a range of contemporary guidebooks and periodicals. A series of historical time divisions was taken and the tour itineraries in each division were mapped. Secondary source material provided information on the social, cultural, economic and technological background to the tour. The research method was directed towards the five main elements of the tourist system: the tourists, the generating region, the transit routes, the destination region and the tourist industry. Key questions posed centred on the origins, development and decline of the tour, the tourists, spatial and temporal aspects, cultural tastes and the tourist industry. The scope of the investigation was constrained by a definition of the Grand Tour as a distinct circuit of Europe not exclusive to one social class. The main findings of the research are: 1. It is suggested that the origins of the Grand Tour can be traced to the I sixteenth century, when there was an interaction between the spread of the ideals of Renaissance humanism from Europe and an increase in social mobility within English society. 2. Distinct spatial and temporal patterns in touring were established by the early seventeenth century and many of them persisted until the early nineteenth century when the tour. evolved into a summer excursion abroad. 3. In the later eighteenth century there was a shift from the landed classes to the middle classes as the dominant group on the tour. Many aspects of the tour.were affected by this change. 4. From the 1760's there was a change in the cultural tastes of the tourists towards a general interest in scenic tourism. 5. The Grand Tourists used an extensive but informally organised range of services. These services became more formalised in the 1820's and 1830's, suggesting that this period marked an important transition in the development of the modern tourist industry.

This thesis presents an empirical investigation of individual and team contests using both lab experiments and field data. The thesis is comprised of five chap- ters. Chapter 1 introduces the overarching theme of this thesis and the common methodological tool, which is a novel real effort task used in the lab experiments. Chapter 2 discusses this real effort task in more detail and shows its usefulness in studying behavioural responses to incentives by presenting a series of experiments, including individual production with piece-rate incentives, team production, gift exchange, and tournament, using the task. All of the results are closely in line with theoretical predictions and, where applicable, the stylised facts from experiments using purely induced values. Chapter 3 experimentally examines the role of interpersonal comparisons in an individual contest. The experiment follows Gill and Prowse (2012) and is designed to investigate the source of disappointment aversion, that is, whether it is purely an asocial concept, akin to loss aversion, or fuelled by interpersonal comparisons. The new evidence however rejects predictions of the disappointment aversion model, both when interpersonal comparisons are possible and when they are not. Chapter 4 empirically examines strategic behaviour of contestants in a dynamic “best-of-three” team contest. I find evidence of “strategic neutrality” in both field data from high-stakes professional squash team tournaments and lab data from an experiment: the outcomes of previous battles do not affect the current battle. The lab data however reveal that the neutrality prediction does not perfectly hold at the level of individual efforts. Chapter 5 concludes the thesis by summarising all findings in previous chapters, discussing the limitations, and pointing to directions for future research.

The United Kingdom has a long history of using outdoor activities as a vehicle for recreation, rehabilitation and education for people with disabilities. However, there has been little empirical research into the value placed on the experiences by those who organise the activities or by the participants. The Calvert Trust was one of the first organisations to specialise in outdoor activities for this population and through their three Centres is currently the largest provider of outdoor education for people with disabilities within the UK. Through four separate but linked research phases covering data collected between 2002 and 2013, the present study investigates the value of Calvert Trust programmes for both organisers and participants. The first phase involved the analysis of an existing data-set of post-course evaluation questionnaires (n=502) completed by visiting leaders of groups of participants (n=2,843) with a variety of disabilities who had attended one of the three Calvert Trust Centres. The activities and factors contributing to the perceived benefits of participation were identified, and visiting leader evaluations were compared with the internal reports on the same courses and participant groups completed by Centre instructors (n=702). There were differences in aims for the visits dependent on the sector of the respondent (education, recreation or rehabilitation) but an increase in confidence and independence were those most frequently reported outcomes across sectors. There was general agreement between visiting leaders and instructors as to the role of challenge, achievement and teamwork in delivering these benefits. The limitations of having respondents from only one Centre were addressed in the second phase of the research. This investigated post-course evaluation questionnaires from all three Centres returned both by visiting leaders (n=397) and participants (n=2,507). Comparisons were made across the Centres and differences were found to exist in the aims and domestic aspects of the provision reported on by the visiting leaders but not in aspects of the activity delivery. The participants, however, showed small but significant differences across the Centres in their reporting of development of communication skills, social skills, self-esteem and independence. A third research phase employed iterative email interviews with representatives from visiting organisations (n=17) and the Calvert Trust (n=17) to relate participant experiences to the aims of both the purchasers and providers. Both sets of informants saw participant recognition of personal ability as a key aim of the visit. Other frequently reported aims were to provide new social opportunities, develop interpersonal skills and increase confidence, but these had different relative weightings across informants. In the fourth phase of the research the direct voices of the participants on the value of their outdoor experiences was accessed through interviews with participants (n=23) and with a ‘significant other’ (n=18). Differences in the reporting of personal experiences were noted between those with physical and intellectual disabilities. A number of those with physical disabilities, and/or their ‘significant others’, considered that the outdoor education experience had made an important difference to the participant’s life that might have a long-lasting impact. Those with intellectual disabilities reported a positive experience that may have given them the confidence to take part in similar events, undertake more exercise or widen their social circle. A post-visit increase in independence was reported by a number of the ‘significant others’ for this latter group. The findings overall suggest that participation in the outdoor education courses at the Calvert Trust was generally a very positive experience, with outcomes valued by purchasers, by participants and by those with close knowledge of them. The principal reported benefits relate to themes of confidence, independence and realisation of personal ability. These are discussed in relation to the specific outdoor education programmes experienced and the impact that these may have on the everyday lives of participants with disabilities.

Within team sports, coaches aim to improve physical preparation by optimising the training process specific to competition. Unfortunately, at the elite level of wheelchair rugby (WCR) evidence-based information to guide this process is currently lacking. The present thesis investigates measures of external load during elite competition and explores whether this can be translated to inform current training practices. The first study established the suitability of a radio frequency-based, indoor tracking system (ITS) for the collection of movements specific to WCR. Minimal relative distance errors (< 0.2%) were seen across different sampling frequencies. Peak speed displayed the greatest relative error in 4 Hz tags (2%), with significantly lower errors observed in higher frequency tags (< 1%). The ITS was therefore deemed an acceptable tool for quantifying external load specific to WCR using a sampling frequency of 8 or 16 Hz. The external demands of elite competition were determined in Chapters 4 and 5. Notable differences in the volume of activity were displayed across the International Wheelchair Rugby Federation (IWRF) classification groups. However, the specific positional requirements of low-point (LP) and high-point players (HP) appeared to influence the intensity of external load (Chapter 4). Chapter 5 extended this work and established that peak speed and the ability to perform at high-intensities were best associated with successful mobility performance in WCR, as defined by team rank. This was further shown to be roledependent, whereby high-ranked HP players achieved greater peak speeds and performed more high-intensity activities (HIA) than respective lower-ranked players. Comparisons between the current external demands of training were then compared to that of competition (Chapter 6). Conditioning drills were shown to exceed the demands of competition, irrespective of classification. Notable differences in skill-based and game related drills were displayed across player classifications, whereby both were shown to be roledependent. Although game-simulation drills provided the best representation of competition, the duration appeared important since this factor influenced the results (Chapter 6). When the format of these drills were further modified (Chapter 7), drills containing fewer players increased the volume and intensity of training, specifically in HP. Whilst a 30-second shotclock elicited no changes in external load, differences were revealed when the shot-clock was further reduced to 15-s. Coaches can therefore modify the external training response by making subtle changes to the format of game-simulation drills. This thesis revealed that functional classification and positional-role are key factors during competition, and training should therefore be structured with this in mind. Conditioning drills can be used to elicit a progressive overload in the external responses, whilst game-simulation drills can provide the best representation of competition. Given the importance of gamesimulation drills, the combination of different formats throughout training sessions are critical in order to maximise the preparation of elite WCR players.