For some years now, African football labour migration has been of academic and public concern. With a number of notable exceptions, much of the existing academic research on African football migration has been framed in terms of its macro-level structural determinants. This thesis specifically concentrates on the role of football academies in the Ghanaian football migration industry, and seeks to position agency and the ways that it is employed to navigate through the structural constraints that young players encounter as part of their experience of entering, living in and exiting football academies. The overarching research question is whether internal migration to a football academy features as a household livelihood strategy for international migration. Drawing on nine months of multi-sited ethnographic fieldwork in Ghana, three specific, hitherto unexplored aspects of African football migration are addressed: 1) the role of the family in processes of athletic relocation; 2) the movement of young players into academies as a process of internal migration; and 3) the experiences of international immobility of Ghanaian academy players. To tackle this research question and related caveats, and to capture the multiplicity and complexity involved with academy players' internal migration, Mabogunje's (1970) migration system theory is reworked to an Integrated migration model, which is used as a heuristic framework to analyse the ways in which the various stages of football players' internal migration trajectory are experienced and navigated by players and their family members. It is demonstrated that a meso-level approach, that accords significance to the family as a unit of analysis, provides a unique insight into the social processes that underpin the mobility and immobility of young Ghanaian football players, and reveals that the role of football academies in the migration of African football players is a complex and dynamic reality, informed by a series of social forces.

The aim of this thesis was to explore the role of soccer in the personal development of socio-economically disadvantaged individuals in the UK. Despite the adage that soccer is an effective vehicle for positive youth development and for diverting young people from delinquency and crime, little empirical evidence exists concerning how and why soccer can help transform the lives of disadvantaged individuals. Accordingly, this thesis employed a range of qualitative and longitudinal quantitative designs to address these gaps in the existing literature. Study one employed life story methods to explore the role of soccer in the life of coach who works with disadvantaged youth. The subsequent studies adopted the theoretical framework of self-determination theory (SOT; Deci & Ryan, 2000), to examine the coaching and psychological processes within an organised soccer programme for disadvantaged individuals. This thesis revealed the significance of soccer in the lives of disadvantaged individuals. Collectively, the results highlight the importance of organised sport and education programmes in the personal development of socio-economically disadvantaged individuals. More specifically, the role of the coach within these programmes was found to be particularly important in this development. The thesis presents key practical implications for the development and delivery of sport and education programmes for disadvantaged individuals and makes several advancements of SOT.

In 2003, football overtook netball as the most popular female sport in England, and current estimations suggest that 1.6 million girls and women now play the sport regularly (Cochrane, 2007; Randhawa, 2003). To many, this was a vindication of the successful admittance of women's football into the Football Association in 1993, when it became governed, organised and developed by the organisation that is responsible for the well-established male structures. Historically however the movement of women and girls into this traditionally male-dominated arena has been problematic, and discourses surrounding the sport, particularly in the UK, are particularly powerful in reproducing this 'male preserve'. The surge in female participation at the grassroots level does not necessarily indicate that such issues have been overcome. This research has examined the current experiences of women within grassroots football in England, locating these in the context of the club and organisational structures through which they experience the sport on a day-to-day basis. Following an initial survey (n=55) of affiliated women's football clubs, the experiences of twelve women substantially involved in the organisation of football for both girls and women within ten football clubs were studied in depth, with reference to both their positioning within relationships with male football clubs, and their perceptions of the wider football context. The mixed-methods strategy allowed for an overview of the relationship between women's and men's football to be developed, and dynamics within this to be explored in greater detail. A broad feminist theoretical framework was utilised, paying particular attention to the role of discourse within the organisation of football. The research found that women who 'work' within football are frequently' positioned as 'outsiders-within' the sport and face continuous challenges within structures that are constraining both individual experiences and collective advancement in the game. The relationship between women and the context of football that they are both embedded within yet detached from was complex and at times contradictory. The study concluded that the reported increase in participation represents limited progress in establishing the women's game and has done little to challenge inequitable gendered practices that persist in football structures.

This thesis charts, for the first time in any detail, the post Second World War history of football for females in England, examining the causes of the uneven growth of the female game. It also analyses the role of the media in gendering discourses around sport, especially football, and sets its discoveries against the histories of the female game in the USA and Norway. A raft of methods was used to generate data, including interviews with people involved in the female game from the 1940s, to the present day, and surveys of players, administrators and fans, in order for the thesis to arrive at its conclusions. The major finding of the thesis is that there is a lack of synergy between the national policy for female football and its local implementation in England, which stands in sharp contrast to the situations in the USA and Norway. Whilst the game has made unprecedented progress over the past decade, its continued growth in England is by no means guaranteed, as long as the structures of the governing body of the sport, the Football Association, remain as they are currently. The research has also discovered that press coverage of the sport operates within a framework of assumptions about what audiences wish to see and of what constitutes ‘female appropriate’ behaviour. It also demonstrates that the press invariably portrays the female sport in relation to the male professional game.

This thesis explores the potential for applying a 'Mind Brain and Education' (MBE) perspective in a football-coaching context, specifically through focusing on the application of neuroscience in the area of decision-making. It presents a series of interrelated research studies undertaken at a professional foot ball academy and the English Football Association (FA). The thesis combined different perspectives (social, psychological and neuroscientific) and drew on methods from both quantitative and qualitative research traditions. An initial quasi-experimental study explored decision-making across different age ranges and findings were indicative of a developmental discontinuity in risk-based decision-making, with a particular sensitivity for mid-adolescents. To help gain experiential insight on this issue, qualitative studies were then undertaken with a small group of mid-adolescent players. Self-confrontation interviews helped build a picture of the sporting contexts associated with 'risky' decision-making during match play. These findings prompted broader investigation into the culture within which such insights might find application. A qualitative study was undertaken, exploring academy coaches' current constructions around cognitive neuroscience and its potential integration into football pedagogy. This prompted further inquiry at the national level of the FA, exploring perspectives for integrating an MBE perspective into national education programmes. Insights from academy and national coaches were indicative of a broad enthusiasm for the integration of an MBE perspective in football education. The present period, involving structural and policy changes, particularly for youth football, was felt to represent a potentially fertile climate to introduce insights drawn from MBE into football. At the same time it was recognised that unique challenges exist in translating and communicating neuroscience concepts to a football audience, a task which may benefit from greater dialogue between the institutions involved.

This thesis examined the physical development and match performance of elite youth academy soccer players some of whom were likely to progress to become professional soccer players. Physical characteristics such as standing height, body mass and estimated body fat composition, physical performance and match performance were explored. Furthermore, the relationships between physical performance and match running performance were examined in players from the U9 to U18 age group squads. Finally, the influence of biological maturity on physical characteristics, physical performance and match running performance in these elite youth soccer players was investigated and recommendations are made concerning talent identification and player development. One hundred and eighty-three elite soccer players (chronological age: 8.9 to 18.7 years; age grouping U9-U18) from an English Premier League Academy in the East Midlands were assessed for standing height, body mass, skinfolds, 30 m sprint, slalom and 505 agility, squat jump, counter movement jump with and without arms, Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (level 1) and Multi-stage fitness test. All physical and performance variables measured in the study developed over time with chronological age except for the sum of 4 skinfold sites and estimated body fat composition (squad mean ± SD, U9 vs. U17: standing height, 139.4 ± 4.8 cm vs. 181.3 ± 5.6 cm; body mass, 33.6 ± 3.9 kg vs. 72.6 ± 5.7 kg; 30 m sprint, 5.26 ± 0.25 vs. 4.15 ± 0.11 s; slalom agility test, 4.83 ± 0.25 vs. 3.96 ± 0.09 s; counter movement jump with arms, 30 ± 3 cm vs. 48 ± 6 cm; the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (level 1), 787 ± 333 vs. 2617 ± 573 m). Standing height, body mass, 10, 15, and 30 m sprint times, performance on both agility tests, performance of squat jump and counter movement jump with arms; performance on the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (level 1) and on Multi-stage fitness test continued developing until the players reached the U17 squad. Moreover, the highest rate of development in standing height, body mass and all physical fitness tests occurred between the U9-U13 squads. Distance run during match play by 9 to 16 year old boys varied from 4056 (U9) to 7697 (U16) m per match (p < 0.05), and varied from 4675 to 6727 m·hour-1 of a match (p < 0.05). The U11-U16 squads covered a greater distance by high speed running (range: 487-553 mhour-1) compared to the U9 (178 m·hour-1) and U10 (219 m·hour-1) squads (p < 0.05 for all). Similarly, the percentage of time spent in high speed running by the U9 (1.1 %) and U10 (1.3 %) squads was less than that seen in the U11-U16 (2.6-3.0 %) squads (p < 0.05 for all). Chronological age accounted for 43% (p < 0.01), and the Multi-stage fitness test performance explained 7% (p < 0.05) of the variance in total distance covered per hour of a match in the U11-U16 group. Chronological age (p < 0.01) and the Multi-stage fitness test performance (p < 0.05) accounted for 10% and 11% respectively of the variance in percentage of time spent in moderate speed running. Chronological age accounted for 11 % of the variance in the percentage of time spent in high speed running (p < 0.01), whereas 30 m sprint and the Multi-stage fitness test performances explained 15% and 8% respectively of the variance in percentage of time spent in high speed running (p < 0.05 for both). The U9 and U10 squads showed a positive relationship between 20 m sprint time and distance covered in moderate speed running per hour of a match (r = 0.54, p < 0.05). In the U11-U13 squads relationships were evident between performance in 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 m sprint (r = -0.67 to -0.46), the 3 standing vertical jumps (r = 0.46 to 0.73) and the 2 endurance tests (r = 0.45 to 0.60), and distance covered by moderate and high speed running per hour of a match (p < 0.05 for all). However, in the U14-U16 squads no significant relationships were evident. When stage of genital development was used to categorise players, standing height and body mass in the U12, U13 and U14 squads were positively influenced by biological maturity (p < 0.05 for all). The more mature players in the U13 squad also performed better in counter movement jump without arms and the Multi-stage fitness test (p < 0.05 for both). When stage of pubic hair development was used to categorise players, maturity status showed a positive influence on standing height and slalom agility test performance in the U12 squad (p < 0.05 for both) and on standing height and body mass in the U14 squad (p < 0.05 for both). When estimated chronological age at peak height velocity was used to categorise players, earlier maturing players were heavier (p < 0.01) and performed worse in counter movement jump without arms (p < 0.05) than later maturers in the U9 and U10 squads. Earlier maturers were taller (p < 0.01), heavier (p < 0.01) and possessed a thicker sum of 4 skinfold sites (p < 0.05) and higher estimated body fat (p < 0.01) compared to the later maturers in the U11 and U12 squads. Moreover, early maturers covered a greater distance than late maturers in the multi-stage fitness test (p < 0.05) in the U13 and U14 squads. In the U15 and U16 squads, early maturers were heavier and possessed thicker sum of 4 skinfold sites and higher estimated body fat compared to the late maturers (p < 0.01 for all). Furthermore, early maturers possessed a thicker sum of 4 skinfold sites (p < 0.05), higher estimated body fat (p < 0.01) and covered a shorter distance during the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (p < 0.01) compared to later maturers in the U17 and U18 squads. When stage of genital development was used to categorise players, the U12 and U13 players in stage 4 covered a greater distance in high speed running during a match than players in stage 3 (p < 0.05). There was a tendency for this still to be the case when distance was standardised into per hour of a match (p = 0.065). In the U9 and U10 squads, compared to later maturers, earlier maturers were given greater playing time during a match (p < 0.05), and consequently covered a greater distance during match play (p < 0.05). In the U13 and U14 squads, earlier maturers covered more distance per hour of a match and spent a higher percentage of time in high speed running when compared to their later maturing counterparts (p < 0.05 for both). In summary this research has provided the most extensive description yet of the physical characteristics, field test performance and match performance of elite youth soccer players. In addition, for the first time the effect of biological maturity (using 3 different methods of assessment) on a wide range of field tests and on match performance has been reported. The major changes in physical characteristics, field test performance and match performance between 10 and 14 years of age suggest that coaches should avoid as many selection decisions as possible during this age period, that they should take into account the fact that match distances covered at high speeds will be affected by maturity at these ages and that they should be aware that at present, coaches choose to give more mature players additional pitch time which obviously gives them an advantage in terms of playing development. An enhanced awareness of these findings in the coaching community could lead to an improved development and more appropriate selection decisions for elite youth soccer players in England.

In the late nineteenth century, when football became a professional sport and a league structure was formed, a stable 'relationship triangle' consisting of football clubs, football supporters and the media was quickly created. For instance, football clubs needed the support from society, football needed publicity to maintain interest in the game and football supporters demanded news on fixtures, results and league tables. These relationships remained fairly fixed for nearly a century until the 1980s, when radical changes began to occur in the industry, such as the Taylor Report, the involvement of 'new' media and 'new' fans and alterations to the organisational structure and size of some football clubs.

Sports governance has been given greater consideration over the course of the last 30 years due primarily to the global trend of the increasing levels of sports commercialisation, and professionalisation. Despite this, there are varieties of sport governing models existing in different countries built against the difficult backgrounds of their own historical, cultural and economical development. The stakeholder approach has become a trend for improving not only corporate governance standards in many industries but also in sports worldwide. The application of stakeholder theory to sports governance ensures sports are developed within a necessarily transparent system and a balanced power structure. More importantly, it ensures that decisions are made based on the interest of the majority of stakeholders and for the best interest of sports. When this approach is applied to sport management, it helps a sports organisation increase commercial awareness in terms of addressing the needs of different stakeholders and thus benefits the organisation’s overall goal development and its long-term success. Alongside the rapid growth of the Chinese economy, sports development in China has also gradually attracted interest from the West. With regard to Chinese football - the most popular sport in the country, and the first sport to go the professional route under the market economy, the Chinese football market has been seen as an untapped territory with big business potential. It is not only attracting domestic investors but also global firms. This thesis explores the impact of transitional changes within China’s football modernisation process and the governance structure, by looking at the Chinese response to the football development trend of professionalisation and commercialisation. It is a novel explorative study on Chinese football, employing the framework of stakeholder theory to illustrate the transitional process. The data collected from interviews with other sources available in both Chinese and English, was qualitatively analysed and the findings provide evidence of stakeholder relationships between the Chinese Football Association (CFA) and local football associations (FAs), between the CFA and clubs, and between clubs and fans, which identify modern conflicts, occurring within the current Chinese football industry during this development phase. The discussion, based on evidence, is also able to suggest appropriate governance responses for the Chinese game at different levels in order to face challenges ahead.

Association football has traditionally been an institution hostile toward sexual minorities. Boys and men in the sport have deployed high levels of homophobia for multiple reasons, including as an act to dispel homosexual suspicion. However, in interviewing 60 heterosexual male footballers from two Premier League academies and one university-based football team, I show that intolerant attitudes towards gay men are today heavily challenged. These young men – many of whom are potentially on the verge of achieving professional status – reflect the ethos of their generation more broadly, espousing inclusive attitudes towards homosexuality and intolerance of homophobia. Importantly, this was found to the case independent of whether they maintained contact with gay men. Participants strongly advocated their support for gay men coming out on their team. This support includes athletes being unconcerned with sharing rooms with gay players, changing with them in locker rooms, or relating to gay men on a social and emotional level. Few players – notably those with strong religious beliefs – held reservations about same-gay marriage, yet suggested they would still support a gay teammate. While many were concerned as to how having a gay teammate might alter homosocial banter, as they would not want to offend that individual, they were confident that this would not impinge upon their friendship. While attitudes towards homosexuality have shown to be improving in the United Kingdom, scholars have argued that such attitudes are accommodated by hegemonic conceptions of masculinity, without having a profound effect on male privilege and their associated oppressive behaviours. This research explores the extent to which improving attitudes towards homosexuality influence the masculinised behaviours of these men, showing that decreasing homophobia has positively impacted on their gendered expression – many of these participants construct and develop close emotional relationships with one another. The near-total institution of Premier League academies, however, often facilitates more conservative forms of closeness, particularly compared to the university-based football team and other contemporary research. This closed environment also permits the construction of unique forms of banter that can also include language that some might classify as homophobic. I classify these banter types as jocular and physical, and show that banter often plays a paradoxical role, as it both facilitates and potentially disrupts the friendships these men enjoy. In line with more recent research on homosexually-themed language, I also show that participants used language associated with homosexuality, while policing discourse deemed homophobic.

This thesis is an ethnographic study of football supporters in Northern Ireland. It focuses on the supporters of Cliftonville Football Club, based in North Belfast. This thesis examines the relationship of the supporters with the club including the various activities of the supporters in association with the club and the identification of the supporters with the club. It scrutinizes the relationships between supporters, including the various interactions that take place between the supporters and the identification of supporters with each other. In this thesis, I challenge those representations of football supporters that portray them as a homogenous mass by showing that they are composed of many different social groups, based on ties of family, friendship and neighbourhood. This thesis presents an intimate, ground level picture of supporters. It looks at who these supporters are, what exactly they are doing and with whom they are doing these activities. It examines the supporter as an individual and part of a larger collective. It examines the supporter as part of both intimate and casual social groups who are involved in a series of varying and overlapping social relationships. It analyses how the fan supports the club. However, equally, it moves past the view of the football fan as just a 'supporter' and explores their behaviour and practice through social interactions and relationships. This thesis is based on an identification model developed from the works of Fredrik Barth, Anthony Cohen and Richard Jenkins, with supplementary development from the works of Pierre Bourdieu and Daniel Miller.