Much of the literature to date on sport in Northern Irish society has discussed its divisive nature, with a particular focus on the Northern Ireland international football team as a Durkheimian ‘totem’ of Ulster Protestantism which is most visibly manifest in the sectarian behaviour of a section of supporters during matches. This research draws upon participant observation of Northern Ireland fans before, during and after games in the EURO 2016 qualifying campaign, alongside interviews with supporters and IFA staff, and suggests that the literature has failed to consider a number of changes in fan behaviour which have resulted from the Football for All campaign to challenge sectarianism amongst Northern Ireland supporters. Drawing upon Giddens’ structuration theory, the thesis argues that the Amalgamation of Official Northern Ireland Supporters’ Clubs and the Irish Football Association have altered the allocative and authoritative resources and ‘rules’ of what it means to be a fan within the confines of the stadium itself. Yet issues still exist outside the stadium with regards to sectarian fan behaviour where the new ‘rules’ on what it means to be a supporter are more difficult to enforce. The research suggests that greater attention needs to be paid to internal dynamics within supporter groups. Fan activism can actively challenge sectarian behaviour at matches within stadia given the means of social control over a designated group of supporters in a situated geographical space. In line with Giddens, and contra to key tenets of Foucault’s oeuvre, surveillance is not always constraining, but can be enabling, particularly in terms of challenging individuals engaging in inappropriate behaviour. The thesis suggests that the current policy of UEFA and FIFA to close parts of stadia if ‘offensive’ fan behaviour occurs does not challenge these issues in the longer term, nor does such a policy empower the majority of supporters who do not behave in this way.

This study examines the effect that supporting a football team and attending their matches can have on the mental health of the supporters. The examination of the interplay between supporting a team and developing and maintaining some of the conditions needed to maintain good mental health is developed along three main themes. Firstly ideas around a sense of belonging, inclusion, group membership and the impact that such issues have on a person's mental health are investigated. Although supporters, in general, are not prioritised in research about sport, literature from sociology, psychology, sports and mental health areas all suggest that the inclusive nature of the supporting experience can impact positively on the supporters involved. Most of the work done in this field, however, has focused on North American sports such as basketball, baseball and ice hockey. This study explored whether the same impact was actually found in the supporters of English lower league association football. Part of this area of the study addressed the importance that ritual behaviour played in the development of a sense of identity and belonging in the group setting. The second area for exploration, specifically linked to mental health, focuses on the importance of developing and sustaining good relationships and the impact this has on a person's mental health. In a time where much is made of the apparent decrease in the amount of time, and, more importantly, the quality of time spent, between family members (especially parents and children) the study looks at the role of supporting a team in the development of parent child relationships and how the football supporting experience offers opportunities for family members to spend time together. The most prominent of these relationships is the relationship between fathers and sons and the study looks at how football supporting may offer opportunities to develop relationships with specific "ring fenced" time together in an activity that both may be involved with throughout a whole lifetime. The final major theme to develop is around the question of catharsis. Although a disputed concept academically, the idea of cathartic externalisation of emotion is a prominent feature in the data collected. Ventilation of emotion through cathartic behaviours is seen as important by fans in terms of their mental health. Many fans described a conscious system of coping wherein the stresses they accumulated from their day to day lives at home, and at work, are "carried" until the match then vented in the safe environment of the stadium. Fans suggest that the live element of the experience heightens the intensity of the experience as opposed to an experience, such as theatre or cinema, where the outcome of an event is predetermined. Participants in this study are all supporters of Mansfield Town FC and self selected for the study in response to an article on the Mansfield Town FC website and to Radio and TV coverage of the project. The study uses a grounded theory method for collecting and analysing data. In a two stage process diaries were used to collect data from fans and these were analysed with the help of the Nvivo software package to identify recurring themes. These themes formed the foundation of the interview schedule used for data collection in the second phase of the process. The interviews were also analysed with the help of Nvivo and the Grounded Theory steps of open coding and axial coding described by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Strauss and Corbin (1990) were used to develop a core theory. The main findings reflected the themes outlined above of belonging, relationships and catharsis. Analysis of the data suggests that the identification of the fan with the club, and the identity of the club as part of a local community, helps fans feel part of something bigger than themselves and this generates a sense of belonging, security and warmth. Exploration of the role of relationships in supporters' behaviour suggests that most of the fan' early experiences of being taken to a match were with their fathers and were resonant with a feeling of being old enough to enjoy and appreciate the game and of having some clearly defined time with their fathers which was sacrosanct and expected. This was time which was set aside with a definite purpose and involved a shared experience which was guaranteed to generate interaction and conversation between parent and child on a subject about which each could have a view and exchange an idea. The development of lifelong friendships that cut across age, social background and culture also feature in this area of the research. The text discusses the findings and suggests ways in which the experiences described by the fans, and the resulting impact on them, might be used in a mental health context to help promote better mental health. It makes recommendations about the use of football in general, and football clubs specifically, for this purpose. The study concludes that if the behaviours, thoughts and feelings associated with supporting do offer the benefits outlined in the diaries and interviews used for data collection then it may well be that football clubs, from large superclubs like Manchester United to small local clubs like Mansfield Town, can have a part to play in the maintaining of and promotion of mental health within communities.

This thesis presents, discusses and critically evaluates the content and contribution of a selection of research papers published in international peer-reviewed sports science journals. Collectively, these works make a novel contribution to the field of motion analysis of physical performance in official professional soccer competition. Rather than being the result of an initial grand working plan, the programme of research represents the evolution and expression of the author's work over a period of 4 years in a professional soccer club. The research was partly shaped by the author's concomitant experience of the industry and academia but mainly driven by emerging and evolving needs-analyses identified within his work. A total of 1 review (presented in the thesis as an introduction to the field of study) and 9 original peer-reviewed articles are included. This thesis introduces and critically comments on papers within two main streams of work investigating competitive physical performance in the author’s own professional soccer team: a) general characteristics and position-specific demands of play, and; b) factors potentially affecting performance. The original research papers are presented in a conceptual sequence within the two themes, rather than a strictly chronological order so as to demonstrate the coherence and synergy within the two collections. The thesis provides critical reflection on the overall contribution to the current body of scientific knowledge and the collective impact of the papers that has been achieved. Limitations in study designs encountered over the course of the work are discussed as are current and future themes for research.

The issue of career transition in and out of sport has received increasing attention from researchers over the past three decades (e.g. Fortunato & Marchant, 1999; Lavallee, 2005; Park, 2012; Ryba, Stambulova & Ronkainen, 2016). However, there continues to be a paucity of research exploring the impact of ‘others’ on athletes’, or indeed former athletes’ transitional experiences. Therefore, an aim of this study was to provide a relational, emotional and socio-cultural analysis of former professional footballers’ multiple transitional experiences and, in particular, to how interactions and relationships with significant ‘others’ impacted upon their transitions. Data were collected through a series of in-depth, semi-structured, interviews with three participants alongside my own auto-ethnography. Throughout the study, the collection, analysis, and representation of data were features of an ongoing, reflexive, and iterative process (Tracy, 2013). Here, the analysis comprised of both emic and etic readings of the data which gave me the opportunity to explore emerging themes and issues in both future writings and in subsequent interviews (Sparkes & Smith, 2002). In keeping with my interpretive stance, the findings were principally understood in relation to Bauman’s (2012) liquid modernity, Crossley’s (2011) relational sociology, May’s (2013) sense of belonging, and Burkitt’s (2014a; 2014b) discussions of emotions and social relations. The work of Turner and Stets (2005) and Cooley (1964[1902) was also used to make sense of the emotions I experienced throughout my auto-ethnographic research. My analysis revealed that the participants understood their transitions through their interactions and relationships with a variety of significant others who played important roles in both decision-making and sense-making processes. Here, each transitional experience (both inside and outside of football) affected, and was affected by, the participants’ location in various networks of interaction. This was also evidenced in my own transition(s) as I approached the end of my playing days in (semi-) professional football where my emotions were also inextricably linked to my multiple identities and therefore multiple networks of social relations.

Soccer is the most widely played sport in the world. Consequently, players train and compete in a wide variety of environmental conditions. Professional soccer players normally train daily and compete once or twice a week. Exercise hot environments can lead to dehydration because sweat losses often exceed fluid intake. Sweat rate can range between 1 to 2.5 L.h-1 depending on factors such as environment conditions, fitness and clothing. Previous studies of soccer players have found that players are often dehydrated. This thesis consists of three studies conducted in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Young Saudi professional soccer players based at the Al Hilal club were recruited to the study. The author worked them during their training and matches at different periods during the year to study the effects of exercise in warm and cool conditions. Their hydration status was studied using a range of methods including analysis of the blood and urine. The main aims of these experiments were to examine the effect of exercise intensity in temperate and hot environments on blood, urine, core body temperature and aldosterone concentrations. The first study evaluated their hydration status over three days of training and one match in temperate conditions. The aim of this study was to establish that research could be conducted as players went through their normal routines determined by the club management and coaches. Change in body weight, serum osmolality and electrolytes, sweat loss, fluid intake and aldosterone concentrations were measured. The range of ambient temperatures was between 23.4 and 30.6 oC and the relative humidity ranged between 14.2 and 23.2 %. Eleven Saudi professional soccer players participated in this study. Their body weight significantly decreased during exercise. Serum osmolality was always high indicating dehydration. It increased significantly during match play, from pre 288 ± 3 mOsm/kg to 293 ± 4 mOsm/kg. Day by day changes of serum osmolality before training sessions and match were small and on some days statistically significant. Plasma aldosterone concentrations significantly increased after the match. The magnitude of dehydration was affected by the intensity of the training sessions GPS was used to measure distance covered. Players covered more distance in match play (7326 m) than in training sessions. Core body temperature was elevated during exercise but not to dangerous levels. The second study was aimed to repeat these measurements in the summer time during the early season in September. Again, three training sessions and one match were studied. The environment conditions were above 35 oC on all days and the relative humidity was between 10.5 and 13.0 %. The success of the first study in establishing a good relationship allowed some expansion and sixteen soccer players were recruited. Similar results were obtained and fluid losses were greater in the hotter conditions. None of the players replaced all of the fluid lost in training sessions or match play. The mean of sweat rate was 1932 ± 512 ml.h-1 and players dehydrated by 1.8 ± 0.7 % during match play. The serum sodium concentrations were small but statistically significant for some sessions. Similar changes were seen in serum osmolality. Estimated urine osmolality and specific gravity values were high on all days. Plasma aldosterone concentrations increased significantly during two training sessions and match play. On all days the mean of core temperature during exercise increased significantly. The third study aimed to improve hydration in a group of players before they started training. Responses were compared in hydration intervention (HI) and hydration control (HC) groups. Each group comprised of eight soccer players. The ambient temperature during this study was about 29 oC. Measurements were taken on three days; the first day was as base line. Next two days, intervention group were instructed to consume 500 ml before attending the club. Independent t-test showed no significant differences between the two groups in base line of age, body weight, height and BMI (P > 0.05). Blood, urine, intensity of exercise, aldosterone and core body temperature were measured between groups. Serum electrolyte concentrations were not different in the two groups on three days. The serum osmolality of HI was significantly lower than HC before training two (T2) during the study (P < 0.05). No differences in fluid intake were observed during training and sweat rate and loss did not differ during training sessions in the two groups. In addition, serum osmolality did not change after T2 in HI, where the control group had significant increase in osmolality after this training session (P < 0.05). On the third day, serum osmolality did not differ between the two groups. However, after exercise serum osmolality elevated from pre to post exercise. The HI group had lower aldosterone concentrations before T2 started than HC group (P < 0.05). The core temperatures rose during exercise in both groups and there were no differences between the two groups. In conclusion, the three studies were completed successfully. Good data were obtained and it was possible to conduct research with the players as they followed their normal routines of training and playing. These data showed that the players were dehydrated before and during training and match play. Sweat loss was greater in hot conditions than in temperate conditions. Serum osmolality elevated after exercise in hot and temperate conditions and by different intensity of exercise. Plasma aldosterone concentrations were affected by the exercise in all studies.

Congested activity schedules are common in soccer, with implications for impaired performance and increased injury risk. It has recently been suggested that valid soccer-specific exercise protocols (SSEP’s) may offer a unique opportunity to assess the physical demands associated with periods of fixture congestion. Fixture congestion in the current thesis is defined as a high frequency of soccer-specific activity performed with less than or equal to seventy-two hours of recovery interspersing successive bouts. Study one describes the development of a novel treadmill-based SSEP characterised by clusters of high intensity (HI) efforts. The SSEP was validated against the velocity profile and total distance (TD) covered, and elicited a physical response comparable to match-play. Study two utilised the same SSEP to consider the physical response associated with successive bouts of soccer-specific activity interspersed with either 48 or 72h recovery. There was no difference in the fatigue response associated with two soccer simulations, with 48 h sufficient for full recovery of the physiological and PlayerLoadTM data. The 48 h recovery was therefore applied in Study three, where three games in a week is typically the worst case scenario for fixture congestion. Study three quantified the cumulative and residual physiological and biomechanical response associated with the completion of three successive bouts of the SSEP, completed with 48 hrs recovery between each trial. Study three also assessed the physical response associated with successive bouts of different exercise modalities (continuous, repeat-sprint, and intermittent), specific to the demands of the SSEP. The physical response was specific to each activity modality, but the volume of work and number of HI efforts performed across the three SSEP’s elicited a mechanical and muscular emphasis with residual fatigue. Study four attempted to assess the effectiveness of an interchange rule on reducing the cumulative and residual physical fatigue response associated with the completion of the SSEP. The interchange rule appeared to elicit a positive effect on the physiological and perceptual response to, and rate of mechanical recovery following the completion of the SSEP. Study five focused on developing and assessing the effectiveness of a novel post-match active recovery protocol on aiding the rate of post-trial mechanical and perceptual recovery. The active recovery protocol had a positive effect on the eccentric knee flexor angle of peak torque data recorded at 300 deg·s-1. The current series of studies offers a mechanistic understanding of the physical response associated with periods of short-term fixture congestion in soccer. The current studies have implications for the design and micro management of training and competition schedules, and the contemporary use of biomechanical analyses to quantify markers of performance and injury.

This thesis sets out to explain the limited representation of English players in Premiership football. As a nation, England appears to be producing an insufficient number of players who are believed capable of playing at the highest level of the game. Available data has suggested that less than 40% of footballers who started Premier League games in recent years are English. Why then are foreign players preferred to their English counterparts? One explanation to this question may be found in the historical development of the English game. As well as being a game, football is a form of cultural expression. From the earliest forms of ‘folk football’ played in the fourteenth century, a range of social forces have either independently or inter-dependently helped to promote a game largely based upon fitness and physicality. However, during the twentieth century, the football being played in other countries began to improve markedly; football began to shift from a traditional to a technical game. Following the formation of the Premier League in 1992, Premiership clubs began to recruit foreign players in increasing numbers, many of whom possessed the technical ability required to compete at the highest levels of the game. Much of English football, in contrast, has continued to promote a manly and physical game rather than a game based upon the development of technical skills. Unless a greater number of English players acquire a similar level of technical ability then the influx of foreign players is likely to continue.

The aim of the current programme of research was to gain a greater appreciation of the nature of information underpinning skilled pattern-recognition, and anticipation in the game of soccer. In Chapter 2, three experiments were undertaken to identify the specific information sources used to make recognition judgments when presented with displays involving interaction between numerous features. Findings indicated that skilled participants are particularly sensitive to relative motion information between key display features, notably the relationships between the central offensive players. From ascertaining the nature of information underpinning skilled recognition, Chapter 3 examined whether familiarity could still be perceived when only the minimal essential information was presented. Results demonstrated how skilled players were able to make successful recognition judgments when only the relative motions between the central offensive players, and/or player in possession of the ball were presented. Chapter 4 examined the relative importance of the different perceptual-cognitive skills to anticipation performance, as a function of the unique constraints of the task. This was achieved by altering the distance between the performer and ball, and presenting stimuli in video and point-light format. Evidence was provided to suggest skilled players rely on pattern-recognition skill when viewing the action from afar, with postural cue information increasing in importance for more localised and time-constrained situations. Finally, Chapter 5 implemented findings from the previous studies to investigate whether the ability to perceive familiarity could be improved through a perceptual training programme, and the extent to which this transferred to anticipation performance. Despite a significant improvement in recognition sensitivity from pre to post test, null effects were reported elsewhere. Possible reasons to account for these are discussed in further detail. Overall, the thesis extends the perceptual-cognitive expertise literature, offering both practical and theoretical implications, as well as avenues for future research.

Recovery from high-intensity exercise in soccer is very important for players to be able to cope with the physical demands of match-play. Evaluation of soccer players ability to perform repeated high-intensity running should therefore be of particular importance to coaches. The aim of this thesis was to develop and apply a high-intensity intermittent running protocol where sub-maximal and maximal components of soccer-specific endurance could be assessed. In Study 1 and Study 2, initial pilot work on the 15-50 protocol and then the 15-30 protocol, two high-intensity intermittent running protocols, were examined for reliability and physiological responses. It was reported that a large learning bias was present in both protocols reflected by performance improvements between trials. These improvements were supported by an improved running economy on the test. The physical load was higher in the maximal stage compared to the sub-maximal stage in both protocols with both aerobic and anaerobic energy production highly simulated as a result of a manipulation of the exercise and rest periods from the sub-maximal stage. It was concluded that several familiarisation sessions were needed on both protocols especially for recreational players to remove any learning bias. The structure of the 15-50 protocol may restrict its application to soccer and may be more suitable as an interval conditioning drill than as a test. The structure and the physiological responses in the 15-30 protocol make it a more practical assessment of soccer-specific endurance. The relationship between the 15-30 protocol and physical performance during match-play, soccer-specific field test performances and aerobic endurance measurements in young professional soccer players was examined in Study 3. There was no relationship between any of the soccer-specific field tests and indices of physical performance during match-play. A significant correlation was reported between maximal oxygen consumption and distance covered in the maximal stage of the 15-30 protocol. No relationship was found between other standardised field tests used in soccer and the 15-30 protocol. It was concluded that physical performance during match-play is highly variable which makes evaluation of the physical capacity of soccer players very difficult. Maximal high-intensity exercise performance was highly influenced by maximal aerobic power. It is plausible that higher aerobic endurance would have facilitated a rapid recovery between high-intensity bouts in the maximal stage. In Study 4 and Study 5, the sensitivity of the 15-30 protocol to pre-season and in-season training periods was investigated. The in-season training period consisted of weekly additional aerobic interval training. Expected improvements in performance were observed at the end of the six-week pre-season training period in both the 15-30 protocol and the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test in young professional soccer players. Small increases in maximal oxygen consumption as well as a greater increase in 15-30 protocol performance were also reported after the in-season training. It was concluded that significant physiological adaptations can be obtained as a result of soccer-specific training periods during the season. The physiological adaptations are more likely to be attributed to peripheral factors than central factors. A new unique high-intensity intermittent running protocol has been developed during these studies. The physiological mechanisms which govern test performance seem to be different from responses to other soccer-specific field tests. Evaluation of soccer-specific endurance performance is complex since physical performance is influenced by numerous variables.

This thesis is an ethnographic study of fans of FC United of Manchester, a new football club set up by supporters of Manchester United in the wake of the Glazer family takeover at Old Trafford in 2005. It focuses particularly on the importance of ideas of ‘community’ and ‘politics’ to understanding the club. In doing so the thesis sets out supporters’ motivations for supporting FC United and how these have impacted on the form the club takes and supporters’ relationships to FC United. In this thesis I analyse FC United as both a significant development within English football and as an important form of contemporary collective action with wider social significance. I show how FC United was formed within a broader context of political and economic transformation, a ‘neo-liberal turn’, within football and more generally within England, and, indeed, across many parts of the world. My argument is that the formation and continuation of FC United has involved the thinking through, debating of and engagement with particular ideas and notions of ‘community’ and ‘place’ and of ‘politics’ and ‘political activism’ in the light of this shifting wider context. As such the thesis sheds light on contemporary articulations and manifestations of these phenomena and how they may become implicated in collective action within football fandom and beyond. In doing so, it also gives insight into the social implications of the wider political and economic changes in which FC United is enmeshed. Thus, the thesis makes an important contribution to social anthropological knowledge by showing how an ethnographic study of FC United can yield new understandings of how significant recent political and economic changes are both socially understood and contested through collective action. Furthermore, the thesis makes a significant contribution to social scientific understandings of English football fandom by giving a deep ethnographic insight into how some fans have understood and responded to recent changes in the political economy of the game and into the dynamics underpinning an important new form of protest and collective action amongst English supporters. The thesis is structured in three parts. Part One sets out the contextual background of the research, first by discussing the methodological approach adopted and then by analysing the long-term historical context in which FC United emerged. Part Two focuses on the importance of ‘community’ and ‘place’ to understanding FC United’s current form and supporters’ motivations for supporting the club. Here ‘community’ is shown as having multiple meanings and manifestations with the context of FC United, while the significance of ‘place’ to FC United is analysed as lying in supporters symbolic and imaginative understandings of Manchester and what it is to be a Mancunian. Part Three presents an understanding of what is politically at stake for FC United fans beyond the immediate sphere of football fandom before assessing the chance that the club may become part of a larger movement within football aiming to bring about supporter ownership at all clubs.