This thesis aimed to re-evaluate archaeological interpretations of cattle exploitation strategies and propose new and integrated interpretations informed by archaeological and historical evidence. In addition, the study used the modern Dexter breed as a comparandum for the small cattle represented on British archaeological sites from the Bronze Age onwards. Data from a real death assemblage of forty complete and partial skeletons of Dexter cattle in the author’s reference collection, ranging in age from stillborn calves to an eighteen year old cow, and eight partial skeletons of juvenile Jersey and Jersey cross cattle were presented. The analysis was approached from the management of live cattle by age and sex groupings, rather than bones, an approach influenced by recent archaeological interpretations of the concept of the Operational Chain, or ‘biography’, incorporating the social aspect into the analysis. Critical examination and integration of information from historical and modern sources pertaining to husbandry, together with observations made in the author’s Dexter herd, were used to give insights into the reconstruction of herding strategies. The data from the Dexters, of known life history, demonstrated that simplistic hypotheses, for example equating a suite of pathological changes as evidence for draught cattle, are untenable and also suggested a new interpretation of the aetiology of osteochondrosis in young male cattle. The dwarf cattle in the Dexter sample demonstrated the difficulty of recognising bones of such animals in highly fragmented assemblages but also that metrical separation from estimated withers heights is feasible. Interpretations of “improvement” in cattle size prior to the 18th century were debated in detail. Both “profit” and the input of women in dairy-based herding were proposed as driving forces for variations in cattle size and the age and sex groupings in the slaughter population. The Dexter data were shown to be applicable to the interpretation of archaeological cattle bone assemblages from a wide range of prehistoric to later post-medieval sites in England and Wales. This thesis has demonstrated that new and nuanced interpretations of cattle bone assemblages are possible, integrating foodways and social aspects of herding.

This Ph.D. thesis takes part to the vast debate of Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in Britain and Ireland. The bonds between the British Isles and the Near Continent are undeniable. Rather, the form(s) the transition took is (are) still to be understood. This work is an accurate analysis of material culture, more specifically pottery production ; sampling was made in order to address questions regarding Britain, Ireland and the Neat Continent. Moreover, a specific type of analysis, usually avoided in British studies, is here promoted : technological study of pottery production. This topic addressed the question of the determination of production styles as well as the appearing of cultural identities during that period. The second question that has been dealt with here is the continental areas of influence. The results obtained, following a multiscalar analysis, shed light on two wide areas during the first centuries of Neolithic (between c. 4000 and 3700/3650 cal BC), on the one hand on the Atlantic façade and western Channel and on the other hand on the North Sea façade and eastern Channel. These areas can thereafter inform on the transition modalities that, in all likelihood, are divergent from one area to the other. Later, pottery productions seem to find a regional basis, developing, for most of them, elaborate decorative patterns, probably used as a means of recognition. Interestingly, these productions seem to rely on the same stylistic codes that are used afterwards in the recognition process, highlighting the gradual emphasis on know-how transmission, through more and more significant exchange network.

Copper alloy artefacts are amongst the most prolific material remains from the early Anglo-Saxon period (450-650 CE). This research attempts to circumvent the limitations of previous disparate and unconnected typological and metallurgical approaches to these objects by investigating copper alloy jewellery from a holistic interdisciplinary approach. In particular, colour is used as a major new variable, a characteristic that would have been relevant to the Anglo-Saxons as craftsmen and as consumers. This method can reveal the choices that faced Anglo-Saxon craftsmen in the manufacture of these objects and in the use of their materials according to variables relevant and appropriate to their world. All past quantitative composition data relating to this period are reanalysed collectively, to interpret and model metal supply dynamics and recycling traditions. A visual context for copper alloys is created using linguistic frequency analysis of Old English colour words alongside a discussion of other Anglo-Saxon coloured material culture. The application of quantitative colour measurement to archaeological material and the factors affecting colour in various copper alloys on a structural level is also delineated, including quantification of the limits of human colour distinction and perception, the effects of tarnish on colour, and the overlap between copper and precious metal colour space. A new dataset comprising semi-quantitative ED-XRF composition data and quantitative colour measurements from over two-hundred archaeological samples allows the context of colour and composition to be discussed, providing insight into issues of value, aesthetics, trade and metal supply, and control.

This study re-examines ceramic assemblages from regional cemeteries in northern Sudan from the Meroitic era (300 BC- AD 350) as well as Meroitic domestic assemblages from the important citadel and temple site of Qasr Ibrim. A number of objectives are pursued in this study including the first detailed ceramic classification for the Faras ceramics and their correlation with other contemporary assemblages. The ceramic form type seriation for Faras, Ballana, Qustul and Qasr Ibrim is critiqued, as is the validity of currently held ideas concerning the evolution of painted decorative style in Meroitic ceramics. Paramount above other research questions is the consideration of the tangible evidence for 'Romanization' in northern Sudan during the change-over of power from Ptolemaic rule under Augustus. The ceramic evidence presented showcases a poorly understood region at the border of the Roman southern imperial frontier. Ceramic evidence dating to the 1st century BC/AD suggests ceramic emulation in earnest for local (elite) funerary consumption. This pattern soon halted however, surely linked to an extended period of hostilities ending with a formal Roman-Meroitic treaty being drawn up in 20 B.C. and the revoking of Meroe’s client kingdom status. The following centuries demonstrate the development of local ceramic traditions which to draw heavily from native Pharaonic decorative elements and very selectively from generic Greco-Roman motifs such as floral or linear designs. Models of Romanization currently put forward in literature focus upon cultural groups firmly within the jurisdiction of the Roman Empire. Regions which were peripheral to Rome, such as sub-Saharan Africa, Armenia or Parthia have yet to fully develop their own models of cultural acculturation for this period. This dissertation presents a new model which encompasses the socio-political factors present in Meroitic Sudan as well as the millennia-old practice by which Sudan drew new inspiration from contemporary Egyptian culture.

The reliance of a society on watercraft is nowhere more apparent that in ancient Egypt, where the Nile River provided the means for all but the most local transport. It is not surprising that ancient Egyptians would incorporate watercraft, an important object from their everyday lives, into their funerary furniture for use in the next world. The primary goal of this study is the reclassification of Egyptian watercraft models from the standard 1898 George Reisner typology in order to demonstrate that these artifacts graphically represent the evolution of nautical technology through the recognition of major and minor construction attributes. Other secondary objectives include the recognition of site specific or regional patterns in watercraft design that may reflect the social conditions of a geographic area based upon hull forms, quality, color, iconography, and the equipment on-board. Further, certain artifacts shed light on the social structure of Egyptian life including the hierarchy of workers and the represented status of boat men, servants, the military, clerics, and nobility that are depicted on-board. Other identified factors can affect model outcome including the talent of the model builder, raw material availability, the economic and political climate, and the requirements of the model watercraft’s owner. Ancient Egyptian watercraft-building and hull design transformed over thousands of years and models survive from the Predynastic to Roman Periods. Clay, ivory, mud, and stone models from the Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods are used to demonstrate that even at these early dates, the Egyptians constructed substantial watercraft. Hundreds of models made of wood, clay, one of gold, and one of silver from the Old Kingdom to Third Intermediate Period represent the progressive stages of Egyptian maritime architectural development. Unprovenanced artifacts are included in this study, many with suggestions for their probable context based on provenanced boats that have identical attributes. Further, several models are anomalous in that they exhibit non-standard construction, iconography, color, and lack provenance to such an extreme that their authenticity must be questioned. In some cases, documentation confirms these suspicions.

The thesis investigates the points of contact between land and water in the Egyptian Nile Valley (Aswan to Cairo) used by vessels and places where vessels were constructed and repaired from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Late Period (c. 2600 – 332 B.C.E.). It initially presents an overview of the literature of numerous areas of evidence and interpretation used in the thesis, as well as the arguments for and against the existence of formal quays and harbours. An understanding of the geomorphology and hydrology of the Nile Valley is thoroughly discussed to reveal dynamic land- and waterscapes and the fluctuating river levels. This, together with evidence of anthropogenic modification of the Nile valley floodplain, is applied to re-assess a number of archaeological structures interpreted as quays and harbours. The examination is supported by fieldwork undertaken at Karnak and in the Memphite floodplain. The limiting factors of the river and the floodplain, as well as textual and pictorial evidence and knowledge of the dimensions and draughts of boats, are used to identify optimum and unusable locations and minimum physical requirements of landing points. A study of the various lexical terms used in ancient texts for quays, harbours and dockyards enables an understanding of the attributes of such installations. Where possible it also provides refined interpretations of the meanings of the terms themselves. A range of mundane as well as the extraordinary activities at quays and harbours is examined to highlight the different characteristics required for (un)loading and (dis)embarkation. The conclusion reviews the evidence for quays and harbours in the Nile Valley to-date and what future work might be applicable to furthering our understanding of these essential features of the transport and communication network within Egypt.

My research into the history of archaeology centres on the lives and social networks of five British archaeologists: George and Agnes Horsfield, John and Molly Crowfoot and John Garstang, and explores various themes in the development of archaeology from 1870-1939. These themes include the education of archaeologists, the development of archaeological training institutions, and the institutionalisation of archaeology at university level; the relationship between archaeology and architecture/architects in the development of departments of antiquities in the unofficial British empire; the relationship between archaeologists, art historians and artists; fundraising and patronage, and networks in the history of archaeology. Exposing the facets of the connections between archaeologists, politicians and practitioners of various disciplines broadens our understanding of how archaeological knowledge was collected. It illuminates the social historical context to archaeological work conducted by Britons abroad, specifically those archaeologists working in Egypt, the Sudan, Palestine and Transjordan. It also highlights the differences and similarities between men and women in archaeology. Using broad categories to map and highlight different kinds of connections between people, places and organisations, I examine the development of archaeology as a discipline, including a wide variety of practitioners often overlooked in traditional histories of archaeology. These connections have their roots in the social and political history of Britain and the British Empire, the context of a large proportion of late 19th and early 20th century archaeology. This research proposes that, as archaeological work, unlike many other scholarly activities, was conducted with the permission, aid and/or oversight of government officials, politicians, military officers, patrons, art historians, architects and artists - they all contributed to the development of archaeological methods and practice. The history of archaeology should reflect the complex network of organisations, transactions and personal relationships which make up the reality of archaeological work, while illuminating the historical, political and economic context in which such work took place.

Gender, particularly in regard to Mycenaean constructions of masculinity and male ideologies and identities, has affected and influenced Aegean Prehistory throughout its history as a discipline. The research aims to critically re-investigate the question of gender roles, status and ideology and to understand how expressions of gender in funerary behaviour varied among different groups across space and time during the Middle and Late Bronze Age (2100 BC-1100 BC) in the Aegean. To do this, statistical analysis of cemeteries in which human remains have been osteologically analysed was conducted using the gender attribution approach, and then results were extrapolated in an exploratory fashion to select cemeteries without sexed skeletal remains. The interpretation of results is informed by archaeological context, current discourses of gender archaeology and archaeological mortuary theory. Analyses revealed that: 1) in earlier Middle Helladic (2100-1800 BC) burial practice individual burials were distinguished but not overtly differentiated in terms of material expressions of identity, however at certain sites high-status female burials were accompanied by small but wealthy assemblages and were often linked to textile production; 2) during the transitional and Early Mycenaean phase (1800-1400 BC), elite mortuary ideology became highly masculinised though not necessarily male-exclusive, and in rare cases, weaponry could be associated with both male and female burials; 3) during the Palatial phase (1400-1100 BC), gendered practices became fixed, and male burials were exclusively associated with weaponry kits whilst female burials were linked often to objects of adornment. Throughout the epoch, there are indications that high status female burials linked to textile production activities were distinguished by gendered burial practices that stem from those observed during the Middle Helladic phase, and that the interplay of gender and other social ideologies was varied and complex.

No description available.

This thesis considers the experience of being an official in the Seleucid empire. The empire could not function without the many administrative officials who served the Seleucid kings, for they in their roles as royal representatives and managers of information, infrastructure, wealth and political networks held together the many different regions and peoples under Seleucid rule. By understanding their experience of wielding ruling power on behalf of the kings, we may gain a better sense of how Seleucid rule operated, not just as a governmental structure but as it affected and worked through the lives of the people involved. The discussion of officials is not biographical, but a characterisation of types of officials according to their experiences of hierarchy and participation in rule and a comparison of official types on the basis of differing experiences and circumstances. The available evidence for Seleucid administration, much of it epigraphical, is analysed for the patterns of experience linking together Seleucid officials across the history and distances of the empire, and from these patterns several points are asserted. The experience of office-holding under the Seleucids was characterised by a relationship to the king, who was responsible for appointing his officials to particular titles and decided in what capacity they would act as his agents. The work of Seleucid officials was effected through formalised documentary practices, by which they managed information throughout the communities of the empire and communicated with one . another regarding royal policies and decisions in a politely authoritative language. Communication between officials resulted in frequent travel across the empire by couriers, ambassadors and by the royal court itself, and the logistics of travel by officials built up a conceptualisation of Seleucid space as a governed unit, distinguishable by the presence of officials holding regions together by their links with one another and with the kings. In their control of space and territory the Seleucid officials dealt with resources, and applied their documentary practices to manage lands, revenues and taxation on behalf of the kings whose wealth it was, and for themselves. There was prestige and political power to be derived from control of wealth, seen in the business of officials at royal treasuries and mints, and in the pattern of coinage circulation and the habit of acquiring control of local mints by individuals whose power in the Seleucid organisation led them to obtain independent authority. The political experience of Seleucid officials were characterised by their membership as a class of elites in the formal friendship networks of the Greco-Macedonian world, networks which expanded to the fringes of the empire along lines of internal diplomacy. The communication and travel routes across the empire and the formal documentary language used by officials enabled them to build political links within the empire by facilitating material and honorific reciprocity and strengthening the hierarchical relationships of the administration. The vibrancy and success of the Seleucid administrative experience as a route to political gains is witnessed by the examples of officials who attained to independent rule themselves or had influence over the course of Seleucid history