Archaeological research into domestic animals has demonstrated that enamel hypoplasia is a potentially valuable tool for investigating a range of archaeological topics including domestication and animal management strategies. However, research into archaeological domestic populations has been hindered by the difficulty of recording and interpreting enamel hypoplasia in high-crowned species such as caprines and cattle. This research develops a methodological approach for recording enamel hypoplasia in high-crowned species which is applied to modern and archaeological caprine populations from three geographically distinct regions (Orkney, Kenya and Iceland). Modern caprines with known life histories are used to investigate baseline factors such as the impact of the environment and nutrition on the frequency and severity of enamel hypoplasia in caprines. These baselines are then used to interpret enamel hypoplasia in archaeological populations. Results indicate that enamel hypoplasia frequency and severity can be linked to variation in the climate /environment as well as nutrition levels in caprine populations. By comparing enamel hypoplasia frequency and severity between populations with similar baseline factors, variation in animal management strategies can be identified. Physiological and seasonal stress events including birth, weaning, and seasonal periods of malnutrition are also identified using enamel hypoplasia in both modern and archaeological populations.

Hadrian’s Wall is perhaps one of the best studied, but east understood,Roman monuments in Britain. Traditional interpretations have sought to identify one underlying principle to the Wall’s function. Similarly, the Wall’s purpose has often been interpreted as solely functional, with either military or ‘customs barrier’ arguments proposed. However, military theories are at odds with both general Roman practice of the time, which sought to defeat enemies in the field, and the Wall’s generally low level of soldiery per kilometre. Customs barrier arguments cannot account for the seemingly illogical placement of structures along the line of the Wall. Furthermore, both these interpretations are connected to a broader dialogue between the Victorian era, which saw the rise of Wall-scholarship, and the modern world which effectively excluded the Roman context within which the Wall was constructed. It is the question of the Wall’s intent and purpose, as well as the structure’s place in the wider Roman world, that this thesis explores. This necessitates an innovative combination of techniques including historiography, theory, quantitative survey and modelling. A theoretical standpoint is adopted that considers the construction from a symbolic perspective as an explicit means for understanding the original purpose of the Wall. Quantitative survey is used to reveal the full extent of the structure’s symbolic ower, the results of which can also evaluate dominant functional theories. Importantly, in emphasising theory and the Roman context alongside traditional functional models, this thesis reconnects the Wall to its original context within the Roman world. This research aims to stimulate debate on both the purpose of the Wall and its place in the wider Roman world, whilst also creating a framework for using quantitative theory to assess symbolic potential.

This thesis offers a contextualised approach to the collapse of the Mycenaean palace societies of mainland Greece, c.1200BC, and aspects of Mycenaean society in the postpalatial (LHIIIC) period. It seeks to provide a fuller understanding of how these palace societies collapsed by considering them in the context of general theories of collapse, by examining and critiquing specific theories developed to account for the Mycenaean collapse, and by identifying and using as analogues social processes at work in other historical societies that experienced collapse, namely the Hittites, the Western Roman Empire and the Maya. These processes were affected by a range of other factors, which may or may not have contributed to collapse at any given time, and which depended on individual and group motivations, contemporary conditions, and unique socio-historical circumstances. Some collapse theories, in particular those that rely on migration, are dismissed, as is the possibility of creating a generalized theory of collapse. In this way, while no single novel theory of Mycenaean collapse is developed, it is hoped that a more convincing picture of collapse, as a process grounded in active social relationships, is given.It is argued that collapse affected palatial areas and occurred over a period of time, but that areas without palace societies did not collapse, although they were affected by changing circumstances. In this context, settlement and mobility, as well as aspects of rulership and social structure in the postpalatial period are explored, and a main concern is to emphasise the differing nature of the evidence from areas that had been palatial and areas that had not been. This provides a more balanced view of postpalatial Greece, highlighting aspects of continuity from non-palatial areas as well as areas that had had palaces, and modifying a view that continuities should be sought merely from the archaeologically more prominent palatial Mycenaean society. It is hoped that a more nuanced view is offered of how continuities from palatial era society should be considered, and that the study may further throw some light on aspects of Mycenaean society before the collapse.

This thesis reassesses the Early Mediaeval “collapse” of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, through explicit reference to the archaeological record. The study of Anuradhapura’s terminal period has been dominated by a reliance upon textual sources, resulting in a monocausal and politically charged narrative depicting an eleventh century invasion by the South Indian Colas as resulting directly in the collapse of Anuradhapura (Codrington 1960), bringing to an end over a millennium of rule from Sri Lanka’s first capital. Such is the dominance of this collapse “model” few alternative explanations for the abandonment of Anuradhapura have been posited, and just two alternative collapse models, a “malarial” model (Nicholls 1921; Still 1930) and an “imperial” model (Spencer 1983; Indrapala 2005), have been propounded. This thesis thus aims to test whether Anuradhapura truly “collapses”, and to test the established model for this apparent collapse. After archaeologically defining collapse, the three collapse models are synthesised and translated into archaeological signatures (archaeologically visible characteristics and sequences). This thesis then presents and analyses data from over a century of archaeological investigations at Anuradhapura, focussing upon the datasets of the ASW2 excavations within its Citadel (Coningham et al. 1999 & 2006) and the recent Upper Malvatu Oya Exploration Project (UMOEP) archaeological survey of the hinterland. The data is summarised and presented graphically, facilitating comparison with the anticipated archaeological signatures of the three collapse models. The presence or absence of the archaeological characteristics of collapse are identified in each zone, testing whether Anuradhapura actually collapsed. The archaeological signatures of collapse for each of the three zones are then compared with the anticipated signatures developed from the three collapse models, before, finally, the archaeological “collapse” of Anuradhapura is related to collapse theory in an attempt to best understand the underlying dynamic processes.

No description available.

Pottery has been one of the most popular artefacts in the study of the Iron Age in central-southern Britain because of its advantages of commonality, durability and volume. Pottery studies have provided important clues for understanding the society and culture in the region. These studies also have contributed to constructing the chronologies of the regions. However, pottery studies have tended to be unpopular in recent decades. Despite their crucial importance to the field of Iron Age archaeology, ceramic studies of classification and chronology have not been adequately developed. The lack of these places all related studies at a disadvantage, which can be clearly identified in recent works of the region. This thesis re-examines the existing fundamental studies of Iron Age pottery. The method of classification and chronology of pottery uses statistical analyses, considering the importance of objectivity and actual data, which appears to be lacking in the existing studies. According to this approach, a new framework of the Iron Age pottery is created. The analysis also addresses other important issues for ceramic studies including classification, stratigraphy and absolute dating. These issues are discussed in order to produce reliable studies in the future by providing useful approaches to ceramic chronology. Most importantly, this thesis aims to emphasise the importance of the classification and chronology of pottery and to encourage the continuous re-examination of these studies.

The subject of domestic architecture in ancient Egypt has attracted less attention than other aspects of Egyptian culture. The traditional approach to the study of ancient Egyptian houses has been formal and largely focused on the site of Amarna, and context and material have not been actively integrated into the study of ancient Egyptian domestic architecture. Moreover, a methodology for the study of ancient Egyptian mudbrick houses has never been developed. Thus, the aim of this research is to develop a methodology for the recording, analysis and interpretation of ancient Egyptian house remains. For that purpose, this research has adopted a broad theoretical approach, which includes the consideration of universal interaction, contextual and material factors. Its main objective was to carry out an ethnoarchaeological study in order to further explore the associations between humans and buildings and their physical reflection on the house (material and distribution and use of space). Through the collection of interviews, architectural surveys and observation data in three different areas of modern Egypt – the Nile Delta, Upper Egypt and the Dakhleh Oasis – a series of categories were developed and key concepts for interpretation identified. These were applied to a number of archaeological sites across different areas and periods of ancient Egyptian history. The application of the modern data categories and concepts to the archaeological data allowed for the identification of a series of key variables responsible for architectural features and for distribution and use of space within the house. These were articulated into a methodology that, it is expected, will provide a standard means of recording, analysis and interpretation of ancient Egyptian mudbrick houses in the future.

No description available.

Essex is a county rich in significant historic brickwork spanning the medieval period. A great deal of earlier archaeological study has focused on the development and use of brick during this period, providing a framework of understanding as to how this material was employed in Essex through the medieval period. However, the common approaches adopted to date historic brick have several caveats that can potentially limit the amount of information they can provide. This presented an opportunity to apply the scientific dating technique of optically stimulated luminescence in order to derive absolute dates for important medieval brick sites in Essex. This in turn would allow this framework of understanding surrounding medieval brick to be critically examined and revised where necessary. A series of important brick buildings that spanned the 11th through to the 16th century were selected for inclusion in this thesis. The buildings were studied from an archaeological perspective, deriving likely dates for their erection and development, before samples of the brickwork were taken. These were subsequently dated by luminescence. In light of the luminescence dates, the archaeological evaluations of the buildings were reviewed and revised where necessary. The results have shown that medieval brick was introduced much earlier than had previously been suspected. This has refuted the long held notion that the Cistercians were responsible for introducing brick in the 12th century and has led to suggestions of a small scale, late Saxon brick industry. It was also apparent that, whilst being manufactured, brick was also being re-used to a large extent throughout the medieval period, especially in the 16th century. Whilst this is likely to be largely due to practical motivational factors, other esoteric social aspects are also likely to have played a role, such as the Great Rebuilding.

The first aim is to study the main types of pewter vessels surviving for the period, and to show how they were suited to their domestic purpose, especially the serving of food, and as eating and drinking implements. The second aim is to attempt to further investigate the alloy ‘trifle’ by having a sample of typical objects analysed by ICP-OES (Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry). This alloy was introduced by the Pewterers’ Company (WCP) by the 16th century for the purpose of providing an extended range of wares in a more durable metal than ‘lay’ metal, but less expensive than ‘fine’ metal, as specified by the Company. The third aim is to explore the occupations of the differing types of ‘potter’ who worked within the Company during the second half of the 17th century. The growth of this separate capitalist group of middle men ‘potters’ or retailers of ceramics and glassware has not previously been noted. The differing levels of wealth and work of other, mainstream, Pewterers is explored by comparison. The majority of the finds came from anaerobic marine rather than traditional land sites and consisted chiefly of medieval to 17th century tablewares – dishes, saucers, plates, porringers, salts, beakers and other smaller drinking vessels, together with a few larger flagons. Such smaller drinking vessels were frequently listed as ‘trifles’ from the early 17th century in the Company records. Individuals described as potters were sometimes identified amongst the Company’s membership. It was decided to try to determine their actual occupations by further examining the Court Minutes and wills and inventories of likely individuals. It was found that the various dishes, saucers and platters were component parts of the ‘garnish’ the chief serving vessels used between the 14th to 18th century to serve food to the middling sort of people, and that this played a central role not only as utilitarian wares but as objects of decoration and status as well. The Pewterers’ Company members were highly innovative and also produced the country’s first plate (apart from in silver) by the mid-16th century and which remained in use unaltered until the 1670s. Linear dimensions were correlated with the more usual sizes by weight for the first time from the remains of the garnish on the Mary Rose, lost 1545. Analysis of a sample of the smaller drinking vessels by Sheffield Assay Office detected an alloy of some 4-6% lead and this was likely to qualify as trifle alloy. While some individuals did indeed make drinking wares, it was discovered that the term potter usually applied to retailers of glassware and ceramics – a new occupational label. A number of such individuals within the Pewterers’ Company played formative roles in setting up a new Glass Sellers Company in 1664. The business activities of this group – typical of individualist ventures during the 17th century – had not previously been noted by historians of the Company and indicated the Pewterers’ heterogeneous and commercial make up from this time.