The overall aim of this project was to integrate chemical and archaeological techniques by the study of a number of specific individual cases from temperate, semi-arid and waterlogged sites. Samples taken from a Roman road profile at the temperate site of Silchester were found to be composed of chert and kaolinite. No phosphate, an indicator for human/animal activity was identified. Analysis of the metal content of the road samples showed high levels of iron in all layers with the highest percentage found in the orange layer. The iron may be present as an iron silicate which is found around areas where metalworking (especially ironworking) took place.

An integrated analytical methodology, including spectroscopic techniques and micromorphology, has been used to analyse mud plaster sequences and natural sediments from the Neolithic site of Catalhoyuk in Turkey in order to explore the uses and perceptions of soils and space at the site. The sediments were analysed using bulk FT-IR spectroscopy, FT-IR microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis, Atomic Absorption and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. Mapping of multiple plaster sequences was conducted using FT-IR microscopy and spatially resolved X-ray diffraction using the synchrotron source at the Daresbury Laboratory. Experiments using the FT-IR microscope in reflectance mode and SEM/EDX were conducted directly upon the surface of thin sections so that the spectroscopic analysis could be directly combined with micromorphological analysis, retaining additional contextual information.

The preservation and understanding of our past is fundamental to our development as a society and without the dedicated work of scientists, archaeologists and historians, the clues as to how we have evolved over the millennia would be lost. The work underlying this thesis provides a permanent 3-dimensional record of the hominid trackway discovered at Laetoli, Tanzania in 1978 from the stereo photographs taken during the expedition. Despite great care and attention from the archaeologists, many of the footprints have, since initial excavation, been irreparably damaged and as a result, the photographs and 3-dimensional models produced are all that remain of a vitally important discovery. In order to overcome issues presented by the original stereo photographs, robust reconstruction techniques have been implemented in conjunction with a novel segmentation approach for the extraction of the footprint from the background surface. The accuracy of the resulting models is then assessed by way of photogrammetric plots of the footprints, drawn soon after their discovery. This is achieved via a novel contour matching and evaluation technique. Finally, the results of the application of these algorithms to the entire laetoli footprint dataset are provided for the benefit of future researchers in related fields.

For many archaeological and palaeo-environmental problems issues of contemporaneity are paramount. A widely discussed example is whether or not the first modern humans in Europe were contemporary with Neanderthals. There are two key reasons why such issues are difficult to resolve. First there is no formal, universal definition of contemporaneity. Second, the dates of the relevant phenomena are not precisely known, because the available evidence about them arises from radiocarbon dating. In this thesis, we tackle both of these obstacles by providing a clear, flexible definition of contemporaneity and recommending the use of probabilistic statements about contemporaneity in order to quantify the temporal uncertainty.

Blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) are commonly the first colonisers of carrion. Forensic entomologists are able to estimate a minimum post-mortem interval by examining the eldest immature stage collected from the scene. For a minimum post-mortem interval estimation to be calculated, developmental data of the species is commonly subtracted from total developmental time. Information regarding events prior to death such as post-mortem relocation, mortuary behaviour and origin can also be determined from collected samples, in particular those from archaeological sites. The information, however, relies on accurate species identification. Currently, several methods are employed on insect samples. These involve both morphological and molecular techniques. With the constant development of molecular genetics, new methods are being developed which show potential for species identification. This thesis examines the use of such techniques on both contemporary and museum-stored insect samples. Deep sequencing technology, nested-PCR and light microscopy were used to examine the utility of a combined approach for the identification of insect samples collected from two sets of mummified remains. In both cases, species identification was successful, and origin was determined in one case. Results showed the importance of a multi-technique approach, with emphasis on utilising both morphological and molecular techniques to assign identity. Multi-gene analysis was used to examine the utility of several genes from both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA to assign species status of the South African blowfly Calliphora croceipalpis (Diptera: Calliphroidae). Using the Cytochrome Oxidase I gene, Internal Transcribed Spacer 2 and the Carbamoylphosphate Synthetase gene, species identity was determined. It was found that identification of C. croceipalpis must be under taken with care due to possible morphological similarities due to founder effects with Calliphora vicina and it is recommended to use a multi-gene approach for identification of calliphorids. Inter-simple sequence repeat-polymerase chain reaction was investigated for its applicability as a rapid identification tool for forensically important calliphorids. Examining 26 calliphorid species and several populations within many of the species collected globally, the existence of species-specific bands was examined. Results showed that large amounts of interspecific and intraspecific variation were seen, with no species-specific bands detected. It is recommended that inter-simple sequence repeat not to be used as a rapid tool for calliphorid identification, but it may have a use as a population-based tool. The analysis of molecular techniques showed that with new recent techniques, such as next generation sequencing, the information that is gained from museum-stored samples, could aid in historical findings. Significant information such as geographic origin and historical events has been determined from molecular work. The use of a multi-gene approach is recommended when analysing closely related species, due to recent divergence. Analysing both nuclear and mitochondrial genes increase the accuracy of species identification. The use of a rapid molecular technique for identifying entomological samples would be a fundamental and valuable tool. Although cytochrome oxidase I amplification and sequencing are relatively time-consuming, they are more reliable indicator of species than inter simple sequence repeat analysis. It can therefore be concluded from this study that the application of molecular techniques for the identification of both contemporary and museum samples can provide a wealth of information to help both forensic and archaeological case studies.

The combination of the various aspects of this research has resulted in a better understanding of how medieval buildings were constructed, and allows an improved interpretation of tree-ring dates, including both precise and estimated felling date ranges.

Bayesian modelling is a widely used, powerful approach for reducing absolute dating uncertainties in archaeological research. It is important that the methods used in chronology building are robust and reflect substantial prior knowledge. This thesis focuses on the development and evaluation of two novel, prior models: the trapezoidal phase model; and the Poisson process deposition model. Firstly, the limitations of the trapezoidal phase model were investigated by testing the model assumptions using simulations. It was found that a simple trapezoidal phase model does not reflect substantial prior knowledge and the addition of a non-informative element to the prior was proposed. An alternative parameterisation was also presented, to extend its use to a contiguous phase scenario. This method transforms the commonly-used abrupt transition model to allow for gradual changes. The second phase of this research evaluates the use of Bayesian model averaging in the Poisson process deposition model. The use of model averaging extends the application of the Poisson process model to remove the subjectivity involved in model selection. The last part of this thesis applies these models to different case studies, including attempts at resolving the Iron Age chronological debate in Israel, at determining the age of an important Quaternary tephra, at refining a cave chronology, and at more accurately modelling the mid-Holocene elm decline in the British Isles. The Bayesian methods discussed in this thesis are widely applicable in modelling situations where the associated prior assumptions are appropriate. Therefore, they are not limited to the case studies addressed in this thesis, nor are they limited to analysing radiocarbon chronologies.

Archaeological bones are usually dated by radiocarbon measurement of extracted collagen. However, low collagen content, contamination from the burial environment or museum conservation work have previously lead to inaccurate results, especially for old bones, compromising the ability to reconstruct reliable past chronologies. It is reported, for example, that up to 70% of Palaeolithic radiocarbon dates on bones are likely to be underestimates of the real age, blurring the picture of modern human dispersals and Neanderthal extinction. In this thesis, a method for isolating and radiocarbon dating the collagen amino acid hydroxyproline is described. Hydroxyproline consists of about 10% of bone collagen but is not found in significant amounts elsewhere in nature. The hydroxyproline dating method uses a mixed-mode (i.e. ion-exchange combined with hydrophobic chemistry), semi preparative HPLC methodology. The amino acids do not require derivatisation, and no organic solvents are used, thereby avoiding addition of carbon. The hypothesis of this thesis is that the hydroxyproline can be used as a bone specific biomarker, improving dating accuracy and making it possible to obtain radiocarbon determinations where previously it has been impossible. It was calculated that on average 3.3±1.4μg of contaminant carbon are added to each sample in the process of isolating the hydroxyproline, a low level suitable for 14C dating. It was investigated whether a deliberately contaminated bone and 'naturally' contaminated archaeological bones, yielding erroneous dates when dated using the normal pretreatment method, could be dated accurately using this method. In addition, a hydroxyproline date was obtained for a bone with too little surviving collagen to be dateable by the bulk collagen method. Finally, using the hydroxyproline dating method, the earliest direct ages for the presence of anatomically modern humans on the Russian Plain were obtained. The method proved to be a powerful tool that can help resolve longstanding archaeological questions.

Text in English and abstract in English, Afrikaans and isiZulu / This archaeozoological study was undertaken to distinguish between the two hare species of South Africa, Lepus capensis (Cape hare) and Lepus saxatilis (scrub hare), from fragmentary archaeological faunal remains. It was previously not possible to taxonomically differentiate between these species. The research focused on Lagomorpha remains previously identified in Later Stone Age assemblages from two rock shelters, Blydefontein and Meerkat, in the Karoo. Analyses of modern skeletal material housed in museum collections demonstrated that there are indeed morphological and morphometric differences between Lepus capensis and Lepus saxatilis. The Lagomorpha material from the two archaeological assemblages were then re-examined utilising the newly established protocols. The reanalyses proved that it is now possible to distinguish between the two hare species even when in fragmentary form. It is also possible to identify Pronolagus. The dietary and likely cultural roles of the Lagomorpha and other small mammals in archaeological contexts are also explored. / Hierdie argeosoölogiese studie is onderneem om te onderskei tussen die twee haasspesies in Suid-Afrika, Lepus capensis (vlakhaas) en Lepus saxatilis (kolhaas), aan die hand van gefragmenteerde argeologiese fauna-oorblyfsels. Dit was nie voorheen moontlik om hierdie spesies taksonomies van mekaar te onderskei nie. Die navorsing fokus op Lagomorpha-oorblyfsels wat voorheen geïdentifiseer is in rotsskuiling-versamelings wat uit die Laat Steentydperk dateer. Die genoemde rotsskuilings is gevind by Blydefontein en Meerkat in die Karoo. Ontledings van moderne skeletmateriaal in museumversamelings het getoon dat daar wel morfologiese en morfometriese verskille tussen Lepus capensis en Lepus saxatilis is. Lagomorpha-materiaal afkomstig van die twee argeologiese versamelings is toe herondersoek aan die hand van nuut gevestigde protokolle. Die herontledings het bewys dat dit nou moontlik is om te onderskei tussen die twee haasspesies, selfs indien hulle gefragmenteerd is. Dit is ook moontlik om Pronolagus te identifiseer. Die rolle wat die Lagomorpha en ander klein soogdiere in argeologiese kontekste in dieet en kultuur vervul het, is ook ondersoek. / Ucwaningo maqondana nezitho zomzimba ezisalayo uma isilwane sesifile lwenziwelwa ukuba kukwazeke ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwalezi zinhlobo ezimbili zonogwaja eNingizimu Afrika, okuyiLepus capensis kanye neLepus saxatilis ngokubheka izingcucu zezinsalela zazo. Kwakungelula kudala ukuhlukanisa lezi zinhlobo zesilwane ngokwamaqoqo okwakheka noma okwenza kwazo. Ucwaningo lugxile kwizinsalela zohlobo lweLagomorpha olwaluvame ukubonakala ngenkathi yakudala okwakusetshenziswa kuyo amatshe ukwakha izinto (iStone Age) emiphemeni emibili eyayakhiwe ngamadwala eyayihlangene eyayaziwa ngokuthi yiBlydefontein neMeerkat esigodini esisagwadule esiseNingizimu Afrika, iKaroo. Ukuhlaziywa kwezingebhezi zemizimba yezinto ezigcinwe kwizigcinamagugu lwaveza ukuthi impela ukhona umehluko ekwakhekeni kanye nasezilinganisweni zogebhezi lwekhanda ngokomumo kumbe ugebhezi lwesiqu somzimba phakathi konogwaja abawuhlobo lweLepus capensis neLepus sexatilis. Uhlobo lweLagomorpha lwasesakhiweni semipheme ehlangene lwabe seluhlolwa kabusha kusetshenziswa izinhlobo ezintsha eziseqophelweni. Ukuhlaziywa kabusha kwaveza ubufakazi bokuthi sekuyinto engenzeka kalula ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwalezi zinhlobo ezimbili zonogwaja ngisho ngabe sezitholakala sezingcezungcezu. Kuyinto engenzeka kalula futhi ukubona uhlobo lwePronolagus. Indlela yokudla kanye nemisebenzi ehambisana nosikompilo kohlobo lweLagomorpha kanye nezinye izilwane ezincelisayo nakho kuyabhekwa. / Anthropology and Archaeology / M.A. (Archaeology)