The development of methods of examination and analysis for painted plaster allows us to identify and determine not only the original materials used, but also to define the causes of subsequent alteration, which has affected both the painted layers and the rendering. The aim of this research is to examine and analyse wall plasters and mortars from different sites and periods, in order to identify composition, structure and mineral content, and to define the main forms of deterioration and decay affecting the wall paintings. The strategy of examination of these materials is divided into three stages with the following analytical methods. 1-Preliminary analysis: In the initial examination a microscope was used at 10X magnification and to look at polished cross-sections, to identify the structure of the mortar and the painted layers. 2-Chemical and micro-chemical analysis: Microanalysis (spot tests). Standard methods were used to identify the quantitative and qualitative nature of the composition of plasters and mortars, including the measurement of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content, of the layers and in some instances the deposit which covered the painted surface, and the analysis of any water-soluble salts. The analysis of pigments was carried out using micro-chemical tests. 3-Physical methods: X-ray diffraction and X-ray powder diffraction (X-RD & X-RPD) confirmed the mineralogical compounds in the plasters and pigments. Induction coupled plasma spectroscopy (ICP) detected the other metal ions present in the materials. Polarized light microscopy (PLM) revealed internal structures. Scanning electron microscopy and dispersive X-ray microanalysis (SEM & EDS) were used for surface structure and to define deterioration and decay factors.

This thesis explores the extent to which archaeobotany can contribute to the largely historically-based discussion of the role monasteries played in the Late Antique (4th - 7th centuries AD) agricultural economy in Egypt. The archaeobotanical assemblage collected from the excavations of a Late Antique monastery at Kom el-Nana, Middle Egypt (AD 400 - 750) is used for this purpose. The methodology employed in the field, laboratory and statistical analysis of this assemblage follows that already established in northern Europe. The possible uses of the economic and weed/wild plants recovered are fully discussed. By-products of crop processing or food production are abundant in these samples, suggesting that they are also of economic value at this site, most likely as fodder, fuel or temper. This result was confirmed by a study of the weed/wild taxa which showed that samples had evidence for a low harvesting height, indicating the intentional collection of plant stalks during harvests. A wide range of economic plants, including many condiments, were recovered at Kom el-Nana suggesting a more varied monastic diet than indicated by historical records. The use of multivariate statistical analysis establishes that although there may be some post-deposition contamination (i.e. abandonment debris, decaying mudbrick etc.) these are not major contributing factors to the formation of these deposits. The differences or similarities between carbonized and desiccated components of the Kom el-Nana assemblage are explored. Oven samples are the primary source of carbonized remains on site and many of the taxa identified in the desiccated component, especially fruit and condiments, are not recovered in the carbonized component. In Late Antique Egypt cereal chaff is documented as a traded agricultural good and, therefore, it is argued that the use of cereal producer/consumer models is inappropriate in the Late Antique Egyptian context. Historical evidence is used to explain the absence of cereal grain and pulses from the Kom el-Nana assemblage. The archaeobotanical data from the Kom el-Nana oven samples indicate how different traditional fuels (i.e. crop processing by-products and animal dung) were used as fuel. These results demonstrate that integrating archaeobotanical and historical evidence is a successful method to address issues on agricultural economy and practice in this or any other historical period.

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The aim of this study is to investigate the origins of those commemorated at Abydos in the Late Period, in order to determine the extent to which it was a national, rather than a purely local, cemetery at that time. The basic source material consists of all the hieroglyphic inscriptions which are known or can be said to come from Abydos and, which can be dated to the period from c. 750-100 B.C. Because the material has been dispersed throughout the world, often without any record of provenance, the first step is to establish the criteria by which to identify Abydene inscriptions. The second essential preliminary, is the dating of the corpus. As almost all the objects are undated, it is necessary to establish a relative chronological sequence which can be attached at crucial points to absolute dates, thus allowing inscriptions to be dated with varying degrees of precision. This is done by using epigraphic criteria, which are the only features common to all the inscriptions. The specifically Abydene titles are then identified and discussed as a preliminary to the division of those commemorated into those who were actually local residents and those who were from other parts of Egypt. This is done mainly on the basis of theophorous elements in names and titles. It appears that although there is clear evidence for non-residents at Abydos, these were only a small proportion of those commemorated, the large majority of whom were local priests. The unsystematic way in which the cemetery has been excavated has meant that the archaeological contexts of inscriptions are rarely known, and it is therefore very difficult to determine the actual form of commemoration - tomb, offering-chapel or commemorative stela. A detailed topographical survey, correlating the date and distribution of Late Period objects within the cemetery of Abydos, shows that there are clear and apparently deliberate changes in the area in use at a particular time, and it is suggested that these are closely related to the popularity of the cult of Osiris. Finally, the fluctuating appeal of the cult of Osiris at Abydos, as reflected in the extant material, is briefly discussed.

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This study examines the distribution of high-status materials and archaeological and artefactual evidence of their production in the settlements known as royal cities during the New Kingdom in ancient Egypt (c.1550-1069 BC). The research focusses on the sites of Amarna, Gurob and Malqata, but also incorporates Qantir/Pi-Ramesse for comparison. The industries considered as relevant for inclusion within this thesis are those of glass, faience, metal, sculpture and textiles. No systematic and comprehensive discussion of the intra-urban distribution of high-status goods, their production or role as a marker of the nature of royal cities has been undertaken to date. The approach of using spatial analysis as a means to detect patterns of artefact distribution throughout entire suburbs has not been done in this form before and it has been proved successful in this thesis, although the methodological approach to each settlement necessarily varies, depending on the nature and quality of the available data. This thesis also includes new and unpublished data from survey and excavations at the site of Gurob, as well as critical and detailed reviews of the archaeology and material remains at several other sites. Apart from an introduction and a conclusion, the thesis comprises two main analytical and discussion chapters: The introduction outlines the aims and objectives, in addition to the theoretical and historiographical background to this thesis. In addition, it presents the sources used and methods employed. It furthermore provides some definitions and terminology used in the following chapters. The spatial and artefactual analysis chapter discusses the distribution of the artefactual evidence of glass-working, faience-production, metal-working and sculpture-production, as well as the finished products, and the evidence of textile-working, for both Amarna and Gurob. Using a Geographical Information Systems (GIS) model incorporating a database of all relevant finds and a vector grid, distribution patterns are plotted and spatially and statistically analysed. This was not possible for Malqata, however, and therefore that section contains a detailed discussion of all information available on the nature of the production of glass and faience objects throughout the site. This chapter highlights patterns of artefact distributions throughout the three settlements, attempting the reconstruction of infrastructures. The third chapter analyses workshops and factories in urban settlements in more detail. It includes a presentation of the archaeological remains at sites O45.1 and IA1 at Amarna and Gurob, highlighting parallels in layout and function. The chapter then focuses on archaeological analysis of artefactual assemblages from selected groups of houses at Amarna and Malqata, highlighting their industrial diversity. The thesis concludes by summarising the results from both chapters, and using these to address the research questions asked in the introduction. This chapter uses the preceding data analysis to define three broad types of workshops: (1) the large, purpose-built (often royal) workshops, (2) the larger houses involved in manufacture, but with limited specialism, and (3) those working on a household-level with a low skill set. Based on the results from the analysis, a series of organisational models has been proposed, one for each industry, including the control of raw materials and the redistribution of half-finished and finished objects and their consumption.

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