I intend to analyze in the present study, the status of the intellectuals under varied state traditions. The Volga-Ural region was under the legacy of Chinggis Khan. In the thirteenth century with the invasion of Mongol-Tatar groups under the leadership of Chinggis Khan&amp / #65533 / s grandchild Batu Khan, the Volga-Bulghar state was removed and the Golden Horde was founded. By the collapse period of the Golden Horde at the end of the 14th century and at the beginning of the 15th century, the Khanates period began in the region: Kazan, Astrakhan and Kasim. The struggles among the khanates were used by Russia in her favor and these problems paved the way for inclusion of the region under Russian hegemony. Especially after the collapse of Kazan in 1552, a long period of Russianization and Christianization took place. In the Volga-Ural region, where there was no Islamic state, one observes a deep impact of Turco Mongol political culture, in which distributive economics based on power-sharing mechanisms prevailed, and a lively exchange of ideas among the intellectuals as well as conflicts and clashes became the norm. The Ottoman Empire, on the other hand, was formed with conquests and ideological aggregation, which led to a concentration of powr in the state. In such an environment, dynastic ideology determined the borders of intellectual life and the ways of expression of ideas. In the present study, my concern is on more on the interference of the state in the intellectual life.

Based on field research carried out in two neighborhoods of Ankara, the primary aim of this study is to explore urban Alevilik and its basic characteristics as perceived by the Alevis which is compared with traditional Alevilik and its features as perceived by the Alevis in urban setting. Additionally, this study is to examine the basic factors that are behind the differences in perceptions of the Alevis, if there are some significant differences in the perception of Alevis regarding these subjects. In this context, a field research that consisted of 208 questionnaires that were applied to the Alevis who are syncretistic religious community and 6 in-depth interviews was carried out in order to examine the basic questions of this study in Ankara. Furthermore, I divided the respondents into four groups, according to whether state of membership of any Alevi association or not and the place of residence which based on different class positions, so that I could make a comparison between these groups. Besides age, educational level and ethnic origin of the respondents, whether or not state of membership of any Alevi association significantly affect the contents of Alevilik, its social and religious institutions and basic rituals as perceived by the Alevis. On the other hand, there is no meaningful relationship between the perceptions of Alevilik and its religious and social institutions and rituals and the place of residence of the respondents.

The main aim of this thesis is to examine the characteristics of Kemalist views and works on Turkish folk music during Early Republican Period. Kemalism, as a modernization project, aimed to transform the Turkish social formation totally. In this respect, one of the indispensable dimension of this project was cultural reforms. The music policies, as a part of the cultural reforms, were given considerable attentions by the Kemalist cadres since the music, according to them, was one of the area to reflect the developmental level of a society. Their views and efforts on Turkish folk music were a significant part of these music policies. In this sense, Kemalist folklore acts are of crucial importance to understand the features of Kemalist ideologic paradigms. Besides, this thesis will deal with the Kemalist folklore acts in order to understand two main principles of Kemalism / nationalism and populism which were the important ideological paradigms of Kemalism. In other words, one of the main ab inito of this thesis is to comprehend the nationalism and populism principles which constituted the general framework of Kemalist folklore acts. The thesis also pays attention to the inconsistencies and unmethodological works in folk music acts during the Early Republican Period.

This thesis attempts to understand and conceptualize the contemporary popularity of conspiracy theories. While doing this, conspiracy theories are approached as symptoms of current society. Moreover, the issue of what peculiar characteristics of contemporary society are responsible from conspiracy theories has been discussed. Heretofore, the concept of conspiracy theory is defined and its dangerous traits such as, being anti-scientific knowledge types and their ability to be used by fundamentalist ideologies, have been elaborated. In this regard, the success of conspiracy theories is associated with a crisis of modern ideals of society. In this context, Karl Popper&rsquo / s &ldquo / Open Society&rdquo / ideal and his scientific methodology was updated and stressed upon to widen the discussion on conspiracy theories with the reason that Popperian logic offer crucial solutions about widespread conspiracy theories. Lastly, and in parallel to Popper&rsquo / s deductive logic, the arguments about the reasons of conspiracy theories are tested within the context of two different discussions. First, a discussion on Turkish cultural transformation after 1980s was made in order to understand whether the symptoms which were held responsible from popularity of conspiracy theories are applicable and observable in the Turkish case or not. As a second part, the analysis of a book Efendi, which is a popular conspiracy theory in Turkey will be discussed. In consequence, conspiracy theories and conspirational thinking are presented as important and dangerous symptoms of current society, whose reasons should be understood and conceptualized for the sake of peace and democracy.

This thesis dealt with the issues of the emergence of Pan-Turkism in Ottoman Empire and of Pan-Turanism in Hungary between the years 1890 and 1920. The theoretical discussion and literature review related to the subject exhibited that these two nationalisms were possible only when a state bureaucrats and intellectuals try to save the state from collapse and make discussions on the national issues, or when a state elites and noble classes aim to use national ideology for protecting the state from external threats and providing benefits on behalf of national interest. While former suits to Ottoman Pan-Turkism, latter describes Hungarian Pan-Turanism. The thesis consisted of three main and related parts. The first part focused on the historical and theoretical development of nationalism and pan movements, and condition of pan movement in the context of theories of nationalism. In the second part, the emergence of Turkish nationalism and Pan-Turkism was analysed in the historical context. The third part dwelt upon the genesis of Pan-Turanism in Hungary, and its relations with Ottoman Pan-Turkism until the end of the First World War. For that reason, firstly, historical roots of Turkish nationalism and Pan-Turkism were sought so that it is able to see how the attempts to modernization in the Ottoman state provided a ground for the spreading of Western political concepts and ideas and the emergence of a secular nationalist intelligentsia. Also the role of Turcology and the influence of Russian Turks on the development and politicization of Turkish nationalism and Pan-Turkism could be assessed. Secondly, the political condition of Hungary in the nineteenth century was exposed in order to explain the emergence and development of Pan-Turanism. Then, the focus was made on the linguistic debates of Hungarian academic circles on the origin of Hungarians. Exposing the political and cultural conditions could facilitate to project the partnership between Pan-Turkism and Pan-Turanism. Throughout the thesis, it was tried to be demonstrated that Ottoman Empire and Hungarian state had different political conditions and necessities. While Ottoman state bureaucrats and intellectuals aimed to save the state / Hungarian elites and intellectuals urged on the Hungarian national interests. Although some strong relations and partnerships were manifest in political and cultural areas, Hungarian Pan-Turanists and Ottoman Pan-Turkists belonged to different state traditions. Turkish nationalism and Pan-Turkism had an aim to save the state and create a new national identity. Nevertheless, Hungarian nationalism and Pan-Turanism tended towards the national interests of Hungarians through expansionist policy. That was the reason why the relations between Pan-Turkists and Pan-Turanists remained temporary.

Background: Pimecrolimus cream (Elidel®, SDZ ASM 981), a non-steroid inhibitor of inflammatory cytokines, is effective in the treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD). We assessed whether early treatment of AD signs/symptoms reduces the need for topical corticosteroids. Objective: To investigate the efficacy and safety of pimecrolimus cream 1% in the long-term management of adult AD. Methods: 192 adults with moderate to severe AD were randomised (1:1) for twice daily (b.i.d.) treatment of early signs or symptoms of AD with either pimecrolimus cream 1% or vehicle cream (control group) to prevent progression to flares. Treatment was given as needed for 24 weeks. In the event of flares, a moderately potent corticosteroid (prednicarbate 0.25% cream) was permitted as rescue medication in both groups. The percentage of days on which a topical corticosteroid was used to treat disease flares was the main outcome measure. Results: Corticosteroid medication was used on 14.2% (95% confidence interval, CI: 8.3–21.1) of the days of the 24-week treatment period in the pimecrolimus group and on 37.2% (95% CI: 30.4–44.0) of the days in the control group (p < 0.001). In total, 44.8% (43/96) of patients in the pimecrolimus group did not experience a flare compared with 18.8% (18/96) of patients in the control group. The median time to first flare was 144 days in the pimecrolimus group and 26 days in the control group (p < 0.001). Pimecrolimus treatment was also associated with improvement in signs and symptoms of AD, pruritus, patients’ self-assessment and quality of life. Conclusions: Pimecrolimus cream 1% b.i.d. is an effective, well-tolerated, long-term treatment for AD in adults, substantially reducing the number of flares compared to a conventional therapy and consequently reducing or eliminating the need for corticosteroid treatment. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Background: Pimecrolimus cream (Elidel®, SDZ ASM 981), a non-steroid inhibitor of inflammatory cytokines, is effective in the treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD). We assessed whether early treatment of AD signs/symptoms reduces the need for topical corticosteroids. Objective: To investigate the efficacy and safety of pimecrolimus cream 1% in the long-term management of adult AD. Methods: 192 adults with moderate to severe AD were randomised (1:1) for twice daily (b.i.d.) treatment of early signs or symptoms of AD with either pimecrolimus cream 1% or vehicle cream (control group) to prevent progression to flares. Treatment was given as needed for 24 weeks. In the event of flares, a moderately potent corticosteroid (prednicarbate 0.25% cream) was permitted as rescue medication in both groups. The percentage of days on which a topical corticosteroid was used to treat disease flares was the main outcome measure. Results: Corticosteroid medication was used on 14.2% (95% confidence interval, CI: 8.3–21.1) of the days of the 24-week treatment period in the pimecrolimus group and on 37.2% (95% CI: 30.4–44.0) of the days in the control group (p < 0.001). In total, 44.8% (43/96) of patients in the pimecrolimus group did not experience a flare compared with 18.8% (18/96) of patients in the control group. The median time to first flare was 144 days in the pimecrolimus group and 26 days in the control group (p < 0.001). Pimecrolimus treatment was also associated with improvement in signs and symptoms of AD, pruritus, patients’ self-assessment and quality of life. Conclusions: Pimecrolimus cream 1% b.i.d. is an effective, well-tolerated, long-term treatment for AD in adults, substantially reducing the number of flares compared to a conventional therapy and consequently reducing or eliminating the need for corticosteroid treatment. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

The abolition of the Bektashi Order in 1826 was a turning point for Bektashism. Although the Order was abolished, Bektashism continued to exist clandestinely. The reasons of the abolition are explained extensively by the chroniclers which gave official reasons of the abolition. One of the reasons is that Bektashism was abolished due to its connection with the Janissary Corps. Following the abolition Bektashism was subjected to severe control of the Ottoman Empire. Initially, some Bektashi disciples were exiled, and others were executed in Istanbul. The Bektashi tekkes were destroyed and their waqf revenues were confiscated. Thus, the structure of the Bektashi Order changed after the abolition without ceasing. Moreover, it is known that the Bektashi tradition in the nineteenth century declined. As a result of the abolition, the unity within the Order ended, and the leadership struggle within Bektashism between the &Ccedil / elebi and the Babag&acirc / n became apparent. In this sense, from this struggle within the Order arose issues, such as lineage claims, the representation problem and waqf administration. In the historical context the Ottoman Empire was interested more in the &Ccedil / elebi branch. On the contrary, the Babag&acirc / n branch did not have any official relation with the Ottoman Empire. Therefore the &Ccedil / elebi branch played an important role in comparison with the Babag&acirc / n branch. In this thesis, I analyze the discussions inside the Order resulting from the abolition on Bektashism, which were voiced by the main branches of the Bektashi Order at the end of the nineteenth century.

The aim of this thesis is to analyze the minorities issue within the Turkey-European Union relations. In the study, international, European and Turkish perspectives in minority understanding will be explored, respectively. The main argument will read: &ldquo / Minorities issue is a highly politicized matter upon which neither legal nor academic standards are reached commonly in international, European or Turkish perspectives / thus, it must not constitute one of the focal points in Turkey-EU relations&rdquo / . The analyses of historical development, legal background, political influence as well as a conceptual analysis will be followed for all three perspectives. A textual and descriptive research method will be employed throughout the thesis. The conclusion will be drawn with regards to the controversial position of the minorities issue, overall, and specifically for the membership negotiations between Turkey and European Union. This road of approach would contribute to the perception of those reluctant to the political intervention of the European Union towards candidate states, as well as would help locate Turkey&rsquo / s future position regarding Protection of Minorities and minority rights.

This dissertation aims at analyzing the debates among intellectuals concerning humanism, and concurrently designed &ldquo / Turkish Humanism Project&rdquo / during the nation/identity-building process in the early decades of Turkey&rsquo / s Republican Era. During in&ouml / n&uuml / Era (1938-1950), the nationalism and westernization of Atat&uuml / rk&rsquo / s reforms turned into an uncompromising secularism, and consequently humanist culture and &ldquo / humanism&rdquo / became the quasi-formal ideology of the state. In order to spread the newly designed cultural policy, then unnamed &ldquo / Turkish Humanism Project&rdquo / was developed. The present dissertation starts with debates on humanism among those intellectuals who were influential over the decision of the state to support humanist culture. Following that, it analyzes the three pillars of the project, namely, Greek and Latin lessons in high school curriculum, establishment of the Translation Office, and opening of the Village Institutes, respectively. In the dissertation, the emergence of humanism in the country is discussed in an historical perspective. Moreover, the general understanding of both the intellectuals and the state of humanism as a solution to the problems faced in cultural and national identity-building process and in westernization movement is demonstrated. As that perception evolved into another perception that humanism was now the cure to all kinds of problems in the society, humanism was charged with tasks too burdensome for such a project to accomplish. This evolution is also demonstrated in the dissertation. The failure of all three pillars of Turkish Humanism Project is attributed not only to the political turmoil during the period but also to the inability of country&rsquo / s intellectuals to conceptualize any phenomena in question as well as their turning the project into a &ldquo / utopian romanticism&rdquo / in the course of time. Nevertheless, the most important factor behind the failure is defined as the rejection by then existing social structure of a concept to alien Turkish national-being, imposed on the society. While the dissertation aims at revealing the intellectual map of the early Republican intellectuals, it also attempts at making an inventory of the debates about &ldquo / humanism&rdquo / , and hence modestly contributes to the existing relevant literature which is insufficient and at times inaccurate.