This research work is aimed at the valorization of two types of pomace deriving from the extra virgin olive oil mechanical extraction process, such as olive pomace and a new by-product named “paté”, in the livestock sector as important sources of antioxidants and unsaturated fatty acids. In the first research the suitability of dried stoned olive pomace as a dietary supplement for dairy buffaloes was evaluated. The effectiveness of this utilization in modifying fatty acid composition and improving the oxidative stability of buffalo milk and mozzarella cheese have been proven by means of the analysis of qualitative and quantitative parameters. In the second research the use of paté as a new by-product in dietary feed supplementation for dairy ewes, already fed with a source of unsaturated fatty acids such as extruded linseed, was studied in order to assess the effect of this combination on the dairy products obtained. The characterization of paté as a new by-product was also carried out, studying the optimal conditions of its stabilization and preservation at the same time. The main results, common to both researches, have been the detection and the characterization of hydrophilic phenols in the milk. The analytical detection of hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol in the ewes’ milk fed with the paté and hydroxytyrosol in buffalo fed with pomace showed for the first time the presence in the milk of hydroxytyrosol, which is one of the most important bioactive compounds of the oil industry products; the transfer of these antioxidants and the proven improvement of the quality of milk fat could positively interact in the prevention of some human cardiovascular diseases and some tumours, increasing in this manner the quality of dairy products, also improving their shelf-life. These results also provide important information on the bioavailability of these phenolic compounds.

Nowadays it is requested more investigations on alternative rearing systems that are able to improve poultry welfare and to warrant high-quality and safe meat products. This thesis work was focused on the evaluation of the oxidative stability of poultry meats, obtained with different rearing systems, diets (supplemented with bioactive compounds), and packaging conditions. The thesis work was divided into the following parts: - Evaluation of the effects of different rearing systems on the quality, fatty acid composition and oxidative stability of poultry thigh and breast meat belonging to different product categories (“rotisserie” and “cut-up” carcasses); - Evaluation of the effects of different rearing systems and packaging conditions on the shelf-life of poultry thigh meat stored at 4°C for 14 days, and the effects of feed supplementation with thymol (control diet and diet with 2 different concentration of thymol) and packaging conditions on lipid oxidation of poultry thigh meat shelf-life (stored at 4°C for 14 days). The oxidative stability of poultry meat was studied by means of the spectrophotometric determinations of peroxide value and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances. - Evaluation of anti-inflammatory effects of different flavonoids (thymol, luteolin, tangeretin, sulforaphane, polymethoxyflavones, curcumin derivates) to detect their biological activity in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells in vitro, in order to study more in depth their action mechanisms. It was evaluated the cell vitality (MTT assay), nitrite concentration and protein profile. The study was focused on the identification of potential dietary bioactive compounds in order to investigate their biological activity and possible synergic effects, and to develop new suitable strategies for long-term promotion of human health, in particular against cancer. / Oggigiorno sono sempre più richiesti i lavori di ricerca sullo studio di sistemi di allevamento alternativi in grado di migliorare il benessere degli animali e di migliorare la qualità e la sicurezza delle carni. Il presente elaborato di tesi si è basato sulla valutazione dello stato ossidativo di carni avicole, provenienti da animali allevati con sistemi alternativi ed alimentati con diete integrate con composti bioattivi, e conservate in diverse tipologie di packaging. L’organizzazione della ricerca si è sviluppata nei seguenti punti: - Valutazione dell’effetto di sistemi di allevamento alternativi del pollo da carne sulla qualità, composizione degli acidi grassi e stabilità ossidativa della frazione lipidica muscolare delle carni di petto e coscia ottenute da due categorie commerciali (“Rotisserie” e “Cut-up”); - Studio della stabilità ossidativa condotta mediante prove di shelf-life su carni di coscia ottenute da polli allevati con diversi sistemi di allevamento e alimentati con tre tipi di diete (dieta di controllo e diete arricchite di timolo a due diverse concentrazioni). Queste carni sono state confezionate con diverse modalità (atmosfera ordinaria e protettiva) e conservate in condizioni di refrigerazione (2-4°C) per 14 giorni. La stabilità ossidativa è stata valutata mediante le determinazioni spettrofotometriche del numero di perossidi e delle sostanze reattive all’acido tiobarbiturico; - Valutazione dell’attività anti-infiammatoria di diversi bioflavonoidi (timolo, luteolina, tangeretina, sulforafano, polimetossiflavoni, derivati della curcumina), facendo luce sui meccanismi d’azione di quest’ultimi, su linee cellulari macrofagiche (LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells) in vitro. Sono stati valutati la vitalità cellulare (MTT assay), la determinazione indiretta dell’ossido nitrico e l’identificazione delle proteine. In particolare, il lavoro si è soffermato sull’identificazione di potenziali componenti nutraceutici, caratterizzati da una forte azione sinergica, con lo scopo di indagare sulla loro attività biologica ed i loro possibili effetti sinergici e quindi di sviluppare nuove strategie finalizzate alla prevenzione del cancro, a lungo termine.

Tra i componenti naturali biologicamente attivi, e con cui è possibile arricchire il latte, notevole importanza rivestono gli acidi grassi Omega3 e i CLA. I ruoli benefici svolti da questi particolari lipidi si manifestano soprattutto nella regolazione dei processi infiammatori, nella prevenzione del diabete e delle malattie cardiovascolari; è inoltre dimostrato come i CLA abbiano attività anticancerogena e ipocolesterolemica, stimolino il sistema immunitario e prevengano l’insorgenza del diabete e delle malattie croniche non trasmissibili. Lo scopo di questo lavoro è stato quello di individuare, in condizioni sperimentali controllate e nelle comuni realtà di allevamento, le possibili strategie alimentari atte ad aumentare le concentrazioni di Omega-3 e CLA del latte vaccino, senza penalizzare i titoli di grasso del latte. I lavori sperimentali effettuati possono essere distinti in 3 fasi: una prima fase in cui l’oggetto principale delle ricerche svolte è stato l’incremento in acidi grassi Omega3 del latte, una seconda fase in cui l’obiettivo si è allargato anche all’incremento delle concentrazioni in CLA, e una terza fase che ha avuto come scopo quello di incrementare i livelli di Omega3 e CLA del latte senza penalizzare i titoli di grasso. Le strategie alimentari più efficaci si sono basate sulla modificazione degli apporti lipidici della razione attraverso la supplementazione con seme di soia o relativo olio, semi di lino o relativo olio, olii di pesce e acido stearico. Le ricerche svolte hanno evidenziato come, attraverso opportune ed accurate modulazioni degli apporti lipidici delle razioni, sia di fatto possibile innalzare i contenuti di acidi grassi della serie Omega3 e CLA nel latte vaccino, senza penalizzare i titoli del grasso del latte. / Omega3 and CLA are among the most important active biologic components usually used as milk-enricheners. The main beneficial roles accomplished by these particular lipids are: the regulation of inflammatory processes and the prevention of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, it is proven the CLA anticancer and hypocholesterolemic effect. Aim of this study was to identify the feed strategies to increase the Omega-3 and CLA concentration in milk, without affecting the titles of milk fat. Tests were carried out under controlled experimental conditions and in accomplishment with the common farming reality. The research was divided in three phases. Main object of the first phase was to find the best strategies to increase Omega-3 fatty acids of milk. The second phase collected the tests in which the goal was extended to include the increase also in CLA concentrations. The third phase aimed to enrich the levels of Omega-3 and CLA in milk without affecting the fat titles of milk. The researches were mostly conducted at the didactic-experimental farm of Bologna University; other tests were directed also in commercial farms, in order to respect the common operating conditions. The most effective dietary strategies based on the modification of lipid dietary intake. Supplementation of the ration was mainly based on soybean and relative oil, linseed and relative oil, fish oils and stearic acid. Results from this research show that operating an appropriate and accurate modulation of lipid intake of rations allows to raise the content of fatty acids Omega-3 and CLA in cow's milk, without penalizing the titles of milk fat.

Over the past 15 years the Italian brewing scene showed interesting changes, especially with regard to the creation of many breweries with an annual production of less than 10,000 hectoliters. The beers produced by microbreweries are very susceptible to attack by spoilage micro-organisms that cause the deterioration of beer quality characteristics. In addition, most of the microbreweries do not practice heat treatments of stabilization and do not carry out quality checks on the product. The high presence of beer spoilage bacteria is an economic problem for the brewing industry because it can damage the brand and it causes high costs of product retrieval. This thesis project was aimed to study the management of the production process in the Italian microbreweries within a production less than 10,000 hl. In particular, the annual production, type of plant, yeast management, process management, cleaning and sanitizing of a representative sample of microbreweries were investigated. Furthermore was made a collection of samples in order to identify, with simple methods, what are spoilage bacteria more present in the Italian craft beers. 21% of the beers analysed were positive at the presence of lactic acid bacteria. These analytical data show the importance of understanding what are the weak points of the production process that cause the development of spoilage bacteria. Finally, the thesis examined the actual production of two microbreweries in order to understand the process management that can promote the growth of spoilage bacteria in beer and production plant. The analysis of the data for the two case studies was helpful to understand what are the critical points where the microorganisms are most frequently in contact with the product. The hygiene practices are crucial to ensure the quality of the finished product, especially in the case of non-pasteurized beer.

In this thesis two approaches were applied to achieve a double general objective. The first chapter was dedicated to the study of the distribution of the expression of genes of several bitter and fat receptor in several gastrointestinal tracts. A set of 7 genes for bitter taste and for 3 genes for fat taste was amplified with real-time PCR from mRNA extracted from 5 gastrointestinal segments of weaned pigs. The presence of gene expression for several chemosensing receptors for bitter and fat taste in different compartments of the stomach confirms that this organ should be considered a player for the early detection of bolus composition. In the second chapter we investigated in young pigs the distribution of butyrate-sensing olfactory receptor (OR51E1) receptor along the GIT, its relation with some endocrine markers, its variation with age, and after interventions affecting the gut environment and intestinal microbiota in piglets and in different tissues. Our results indicate that OR51E1 is strictly related to the normal GIT enteroendocrine activity. In the third chapter we investigated the differential gene expression between oxyntic and pyloric mucosa in seven starter pigs. The obtained data indicate that there is significant differential gene exression between oxintic of the young pig and pyloric mucosa and further functional studies are needed to confirm their physiological importance. In the last chapter, thymol, that has been proposed as an oral alternative to antibiotics in the feed of pigs and broilers, was introduced directly into the stomach of 8 weaned pigs and sampled for gastric oxyntic and pyloric mucosa. The analysis of the whole transcript expression shoes that the stimulation of gastric proliferative activity and the control of digestive activity by thymol can influence positively gastric maturation and function in the weaned pigs.

Il microbiota intestinale riveste un ruolo importantissimo nell’influenzare la salute dell’ospite. È stato dimostrato come la composizione della dieta possa condizionare lo stato di benessere dell’animale, inducendo importanti cambiamenti tra le popolazioni batteriche che coabitano l’intestino; l’uso di prebiotici rappresenta una delle strategie maggiormente impiegate per modulare positivamente la composizione ed il metabolismo dell’ecosistema gastroenterico. Il presente progetto di dottorato si è proposto di indagare gli effetti sul microbiota intestinale del cane e del gatto di diete a diverso tenore proteico e contenenti proteine di diversa digeribilità in presenza o meno di sostanze prebiotiche. Inoltre, sono stati valutati gli effetti della presenza di un estratto di Yucca schidigera e di tannini sulla microflora intestinale del gatto. In ultima istanza, sono state valutate le conseguenze di dosi crescenti di lattosio sul benessere intestinale del cane. I risultati del presente studio hanno rilevato come le sostanze prebiotiche influiscono sulla composizione e sul metabolismo della microflora del cane e del gatto, e come l’impiego di diete ricche di proteine possa avere conseguenze negative sull’ambiente intestinale. Tuttavia, la presenza di oligosaccaridi non sembra contrastare gli effetti negativi che diete ad alto tenore proteico potrebbero avere sull’ecosistema intestinale dell’animale. Nella successiva prova è stato evidenziato come l’inclusione nella dieta di estratti di Yucca e tannini possa contribuire a mitigare l’emanazione di sostanze maleodoranti dalle deiezioni degli animali da compagnia. Nel corso dell’ultima prova, nonostante non siano state osservate differenze tra le popolazioni microbiche intestinali, la somministrazione di dosi crescenti di lattosio ha indotto una certa riduzione delle fermentazioni proteolitiche microbiche. Ulteriori studi sono necessari per stabilire in che misura la dieta e gli alimenti “funzionali” possano influire sul microbiota intestinale del cane e del gatto e come queste informazioni possono essere utilizzate per migliorare miratamente l’alimentazione e lo stato di salute degli animali da compagnia. / The microbiota of the large intestine plays a fundamental role in maintaining the state of health of the gastrointestinal tract and the host. Considerable evidence suggests that dietary macronutrients and prebiotic substances may affect microbial composition and activity. Knowledge about the modulation of canine and feline intestinal microbiota in response to macronutrients and prebiotic supplementation is limited. However, such information is necessary to investigate further the complex interplay between host and intestinal microbiota in response to changes of diet. The research for this PhD thesis focused upon the changes of the intestinal microbiota and bacterial metabolites of dogs and cats, in response to feeding diets differing in their protein content and digestibility, and containing or not a source of prebiotics. Additionally, the effects of tannins and Yucca schidigera extract on feline intestinal microbiota were evaluated. Furthermore, aim of the last trial was to evaluate the effect of increasing level of lactose on composition and metabolism of dog intestinal microbiota. The results from the present thesis show that different prebiotics exert different effects on the composition and activity of canine and feline intestinal microbiota and that high dietary protein levels can have negative effects on the animal intestinal environment. However, administration of oligosaccharides doesn’t seem to counteract the negative effects that can be observed when companion animals are fed high-protein diets. In the other study, Yucca extract and tannins does not affect feline fecal microbiota. Despite this, a reduction of odour components was observed due to fermentation of substrates. Finally, results from the final study showed no difference between treatments on canine microbial population. However, proteolytic compounds were decreased by lactose. Future studies must determine how diet composition and prebiotic supplementation affect the gut microbiota and how this information may be used to improve diets and the host’s health.

Methane yield of ligno-cellulosic substrates (i.e. dedicated energy crops and agricultural residues) may be limited by their composition and structural features. Hence, biomass pre-treatments are envisaged to overcome this constraint. This thesis aimed at: i) assessing biomass and methane yield of dedicated energy crops; ii) evaluating the effects of hydrothermal pre-treatments on methane yield of Arundo; iii) investigating the effects of NaOH pre-treatments and iv) acid pre-treatments on chemical composition, physical structure and methane yield of two dedicated energy crops and one agricultural residue. Three multi-annual species (Arundo, Switchgrass and Sorghum Silk), three sorghum hybrids (Trudan Headless, B133 and S506) and a maize, as reference for AD, were studied in the frame of point i). Results exhibit the remarkable variation in biomass yield, chemical characteristics and potential methane yield. The six species alternative to maize deserve attention in view of a low need of external inputs but necessitate improvements in biodegradability. In the frame of point ii), Arundo was subjected to hydrothermal pre-treatments at different temperature, time and acid catalyst (with and without H2SO4). Pre-treatments determined a variable effect on methane yield: pre-treatments without acid catalyst achieved up to +23% CH4 output, while pre-treatments with H2SO4 catalyst incurred a methanogenic inhibition. Two biomass crops (Arundo and B133) and an agricultural residue (Barley straw) were subject to NaOH and acid pre-treatments, in the frame of point iii) and iv), respectively. Different pre-treatments determined a change of chemical and physical structure and an increase of methane yield: up to +30% and up to +62% CH4 output in Arundo with NaOH and acid pre-treatments, respectively. It is thereby demonstrated that pre-treatments can actually enhance biodegradability and subsequent CH4 output of ligno-cellulosic substrates, although pre-treatment viability needs to be evaluated at the level of full scale biogas plants in a perspective of profitable implementation.

Recently, the increasing interest in organic food products and environmental friendly practices has emphasized the importance of selecting crop varieties suitable for the low-input systems. Additionally, in recent years the relationship between diet and human health has gained much attention among consumers, favoring the investigations on food nutraceutical properties. Among cereals, wheat plays an important role in human nutrition around the world and contributes to the daily intake of essential nutrients such as starch and protein. Moreover, whole grain contains several bioactive compounds that confer to wheat-derived products unique nutraceutical properties (dietary fibre, antioxidants). The present research provided interesting insights for the selection of wheat genotypes suitable for low-input systems and the development of specific breeding programs dedicated to organic farming. The investigation involved 5 old not dwarf genotypes (Andriolo, Frassineto, Gentil rosso, Inallettabile, Verna) and 1 modern dwarf variety (Palesio), grown under biodynamic management, over two consecutive growing seasons (2009/2010, 2010/2011). Results evidenced that under low-input farming some investigated old wheat genotypes (Frassineto, Inallettabile) were comparable to the modern cultivar in terms of whole agronomic performance. As regards the nutritional and nutraceutical properties, some old genotypes (Andriolo, Gentil rosso, Verna) emerged for their relevant content of several investigated phytochemicals (such as insoluble dietary fibre, polyphenols, flavonoids, in vitro antioxidant activity) and nutrients (protein, lipid, minerals). Despite of the low technological features, the six wheat varieties grown under low-input management may efficiently provide raw material for the preparation of traditionally processed bread with valuable sensory and nutritional properties. Results highlighted that old wheat varieties have peculiar phytochemical composition and may be a valuable source of nutraceutical compounds. Some of the genetic material involved in the present study may be used in breeding programs aimed at selecting varieties suitable for low-input farming and rich in health-promoting compounds.

Sweet sorghum, a C4 crop of tropical origin, is gaining momentum as a multipurpose feedstock to tackle the growing environmental, food and energy security demands. Under temperate climates sweet sorghum is considered as a potential bioethanol feedstock, however, being a relatively new crop in such areas its physiological and metabolic adaptability has to be evaluated; especially to the more frequent and severe drought spells occurring throughout the growing season and to the cold temperatures during the establishment period of the crop. The objective of this thesis was to evaluate some adaptive photosynthetic traits of sweet sorghum to drought and cold stress, both under field and controlled conditions. To meet such goal, a series of experiments were carried out. A new cold-tolerant sweet sorghum genotype was sown in rhizotrons of 1 m3 in order to evaluate its tolerance to progressive drought until plant death at young and mature stages. Young plants were able to retain high photosynthetic rate for 10 days longer than mature plants. Such response was associated to the efficient PSII down-regulation capacity mediated by light energy dissipation, closure of reaction centers (JIP-test parameters), and accumulation of glucose and sucrose. On the other hand, when sweet sorghum plants went into blooming stage, neither energy dissipation nor sugar accumulation counteracted the negative effect of drought. Two hybrids with contrastable cold tolerance, selected from an early sowing field trial were subjected to chilling temperatures under controlled growth conditions to evaluate in deep their physiological and metabolic cold adaptation mechanisms. The hybrid which poorly performed under field conditions (ICSSH31), showed earlier metabolic changes (Chl a + b, xanthophyll cycle) and greater inhibition of enzymatic activity (Rubisco and PEPcase activity) than the cold tolerant hybrid (Bulldozer). Important insights on the potential adaptability of sweet sorghum to temperate climates are given.

During my three academic years, I focused on the effects of N fertilization on growth and function of plants and forest stands. The study had the dual objective of estimating the effects of atmospheric N deposition and evaluating the potential management value of N fertilization itself. In particular, the analysis took into account the changes induced in water use and intrinsic transpiration efficiency (ITE), an aspect often overlooked in world literature but of great importance especially in Mediterranean environment, where the positive effects of N fertilization may be denied by the parallel increased transpiration and exacerbated water stress.