We compare the cost-effectiveness of two simulated auction models (AM1, AM2) with that of classical payment mechanisms as a marginal flat rate payment (MFR) and average flat rate payment (FR). The models follows the one-shot budget constrained auction model first introduced by Latacz-Lohmann and Van Der Hamsvoort (1997), and subsequently by Viaggi et al. (2008) and Glebe (2008). The first model (AM1) deals with one-dimensional bids and it allows farmers to make an offer about a per hectare agri-environmental payment that they would like to receive in order to implement a generic agri-environmental measure on their agricultural land. In the second auction model (AM2) we further extend the analysis, allowing farmers to offer a combination of payment and a measure of their uptake in the agri-environmental program (i.e. a share of their land to commit under the program). Once simulated for AM1 and AM2 the optimal bidding behavior of a population of farmer taken from FADN data of E-R 2010 and 2011, assuming a fixed budget level and the sole objective for the public regulator to maximizes farmers participation to the AEM, we analyzed the total payment, the total cost and the total contracted area comparing the result with MFR and FR payment. The results confirm that the auction has the potential to reduce farmers’ information rent when compared with uniform policy instruments. Though the scale of saving depends crucially on auction design hypotheses and farmers' expectation about the maximum acceptable bid cap. The simulation while reflects a number of plausible assumptions, also remains rather simplified and could be improved in further research. However, it can contribute to feed the debate at EU policy level about the role in considering auction design and bidding behaviour so as to limiting the inefficiency related to the actual agri-environmental payments.

In organic and biodynamic vineyards, canopy management practices should be carefully and timely modulated, particularly in a context of climate change, for successfully achieving balanced plants, ventilated and exposed berries, elevated grape and wine quality. In 2013 and 2014, characterized by contrasting climatic conditions, the implications of post-veraison (late) or pea-size trimming, post-veraison or pre-harvest late defoliations and shoot-positioning (post-veraison) were assessed against long-shoots non treated controls, under field conditions on organically-cultivated cv. Sangiovese. The key agronomic and enological relevance of late trimming and defoliations clearly emerged in both seasons. Berry skin phenolics (e.g. anthocyanins, flavonols) increased markedly, without changes in technological parameters. In case of early trimming, such positive effects were observed only in 2013. Maintaining long shoots for shading decreased anthocyanins, flavonols and total phenolics concentrations and promoted the production of compact bunches. Experimental data strongly designated late trimming, a practice proved to contain yield and bunch compactness, as a valuable alternative to cluster thinning. Late trimming, defoliations and shoot positioning reduced the severity of Botrytis cluster rot. The highest levels of berry skins phenolic compounds in late trimmed and defoliated plants could have contributed control the severity of this pathogen. The enological benefits induced by late trimming and defoliations and shoot positioning emerged in both young and aged wines. For the first time, cell cultures from cv. Sangiovese berry tissues were obtained and enabled to investigate, in controlled conditions, the relations between mechanisms regulating secondary metabolism in grapevine cells and changes induced by environmental and agronomic factors. The Doctoral Dissertation strongly highlights the need to consider, for a proper interpretation of the multiple modifications induced by canopy management strategies, physiological mechanisms other than the canonic source-sink relationships, in particular their impact on the vine hormonal status.

Integrated production (IP) is part of the Brazilian government program to promote sustainable agricultural production. IP ensure minimum food quality standards for domestic market, and export. Furthermore, IP is considered a good option to reduce negative environmental impacts of intensive crops in tropical Savannas, including common beans, as a Brazilian staple food. Although its advantages, and the government’s effort to promote IP, few growers are adopting IP. Maybe, the perception about IP usefulness and/or its ease of use is not too clear. Moreover, the production sector is driven by market signs, and there is few information on the consumer's preferences toward IP certified products in Brazil. In this study, we sought to identify some critical factors that can influence the IP adoption in beans' production. Moreover, we sought to verify the consumers’ perceptions and intention of purchasing IP certified beans (hypothetical product). This report comprises four chapters: (1) an introduction illustrating the context in which the research was based; (2) the results on the study of IP adoption based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM); (3) the choice experiment results applied to identify consumers preferences and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for IP label; (4) the results on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) applied to identify consumers’ perception toward IP certified beans. This research contributes with rich information for the beans’ supply chain, providing several insights to growers, retail and other agents, including policy makers. Beans’ production sector seems to be positively intentioned to adopt IP, but further studies should be conducted to test other adoption indicators using TAM model. Surveyed consumers are willing to pay a premium price for IP labelled beans. They showed a positive attitude toward purchasing IP labelled beans. It is an important information to motivate production sector to offer certified beans to the market.

The purpose of the Mountain Reno River Basin assessments is to analyse the trend of inflows and outflows and suspended solids from the 1920s to present. The Mountain Reno River Basin is situated in North-Central Apennines,(Emilia Romagna Region, Italy) and its area is 1061 km2. The data set consisted of the monthly and annual rainfall data (91 years), the flow data (90 years) and suspended sediment transport data (36 years) (S.I.M.I stations, ARPA-SMR). On annual basis, the rainfall showed a decreasing trend -16%. Seasonal precipitation showed a negative trend in winter and spring, and a positive one 17.1%, in summer during the period 1960-2006 compared to the 1926-1959 period. Time series for rainfall intensity indicated a significant increasing trend in the last years, where the extreme value were maximum in February (1947) and in November (2004) respectively. In terms of flow, the significative negative trend was equal to -49%, -41m3/s per 100 years of maximum discharge and -58%, -15 m3/s per 100 years of average discharges.. Total suspended solids showed an average reduction of 46% in 100 years, differently from the summer season, which an increase of 56% SSY have been observed. Moreover, were described the Reno riverbed pattern, the morphological features of the floods river flow and minimum river flow from 1863 to 2008. The decreasing trend in streamflow observation data, particularly strong since the 1960s, may be mainly due to climate variability and human factors even if difficult to separate them in different role and weight.

Soy is one of the most important and fast growing food commodities in the global market. Thanks to the introduction of GM soy varieties, Argentina has become the third producer in the world, what entailed significant impacts at environmental, social and economic level. Objective of the study is to assess the social resilience of the rural communities cultivating soy in Argentina and to evaluate the current sustainability of the soy system. At the same time, the analysis of the expansion of the soy production from Latin America to African countries represents an element of continuity in the evaluation of the phenomenon at global level. The case study of the soy system in Argentina, with its specific focus on rural communities, highlights how strongly social and ecological resilience are intertwined in the identification of mechanisms to guarantee social sustainability, which, in turn, is strictly interrelated with environmental and economic sustainability. The agricultural sector showed a good capacity of adaptation and reorganization demonstrating being economically performing, but social and environmental costs were heavy, consisting in a deep disruption of the original rural communities structure and of the original natural ecosystem. The soy system appears extremely rigid – because of the hyper specialization and the marked dependence on export – what makes it very vulnerable to changes in the international demand for soy. The current system is strongly criticized by the civil society, blaming it to be the cause of environmental problems and of health risks. To effectively contrast the negative consequences of the soy model, a significant role must be played by policy makers, who should define sustainability policies to enhance the resilience of the rural communities and to move towards more sustainable food production systems.

Secondo il Report IFAD sulla povertà rurale, nel 2008, circa due terzi della popolazione africana viveva nelle aree rurali ed era in qualche modo coinvolta in attività agricole commerciali o di sussistenza (IFAD, 2011). L’agricoltura rappresenta il più importante settore economico per la popolazione africana e le donne risultano cruciali per la produzione agricola: rappresentano infatti il 62,8 per cento della forza lavoro (FAO, 2014). Dopo la crisi alimentare del 2007-2008 si è andato intensificando il fenomeno delle acquisizione di terre su larga scala in paesi del Sud del mondo, in particolare nel continente africano, da parte di multinazionali, governi, aziende nazionali e singoli soggetti privati. Questo processo è stato denominato anche land grabbing dalle principali organizzazioni internazionali e della società civile e ha avuto grande impatto mediatico a livello internazionale. L'intensificarsi del fenomeno ha portato a una progressiva perdita di controllo e accesso ad ampie porzioni di territorio da parte delle comunità locali, che non possono più disporre delle risorse naturali collegate alla terra. La cessione di ampi terreni avviene in molti casi senza trasparenza informativa, con violazione dei diritti umani e senza il consenso delle comunità che vi abitano e che coltivano tali aree, e a cui viene imposto un cambio radicale di vita. La terra è una risorsa centrale per l'identità, il sostentamento e la sicurezza alimentare di una comunità, dunque le conseguenze sono molteplici a livello sociale, culturale, economico e politico. Gli impatti sulle relazioni di genere e in particolare sulle donne delle comunità rurali risultano essere cruciali nel discorso sullo sviluppo. L’obiettivo di questo lavoro è indagare come le relazioni di genere, a seguito delle trasformazioni nella gestione della terra, si modificano amplificando squilibri già esistenti e creando conseguenze sulle logiche di potere delle comunità rurali e sulle vite delle persone che ne fanno parte. / According to the IFAD Rural Poverty Report, in 2008 about two thirds of the African population lived in rural areas and were involved in agricultural activities in some form, either for commercial purposes or subsistence (IFAD, 2011). Agriculture is the most important economic sector for the African population and women are crucial within its production, representing 62,8 % of the workforce (FAO, 2014). After the food crisis of 2007-2008, the phenomenon of large-scale land acquisitions in developing countries by national and transnational companies, governments and individuals has been intensifying, particularly seen in Africa. This process, also referred to as land grabbing by the main international organisations and civil society has had a strong media impact at an international level. The intensification of the phenomenon has led to local communities progressively losing control and access to large pieces of land, no longer able to use the natural resources derived from it. As land is fundamental for the identity, the sustenance and the alimentary safety of a community, land grabbing therefore has had a variety of consequences at a social, cultural, economic and political level. The transfer of control often takes place without informative transparency or agreement from the local communities living and working in these areas, who are forced into a radical change of life, often accompanied by human rights violations. The impacts on gender relations are crucial to this narrative, in particular how women from rural communities are affected. The aim of this work is to investigate how these gender relations are changed as a consequence of the shifts in the management of land, where existing imbalances are amplified, with a strong impact on the distribution of power in rural communities and the lives of the people who belong to them.

In Bosnia Herzegovina the development of clear policy objectives and endorsement of a long-term, coherent and mutual agricultural and rural development policy have also been affected by structural problems: a lack of reliable information on population and other relevant issues, the absence of an adequate land registry system and cadastre. Moreover in BiH the agricultural and rural sectors are characterized by many factors that have typically affected transition countries such as land fragmentation, lack of agricultural mechanization and outdated production technologies, and rural aging, high unemployment and out-migration. In such a framework the condition and role of women in rural areas suffered for the lack of gender disaggregated data and a consequent poor information that lead to the exclusion of gender related questions in the agenda of public institutions and to the absence of targeted policy interventions. The aim of the research is to investigate the role and condition of women in the rural development process of Republic of Srpska and to analyze the capacity of extension services to stimulate their empowerment. Specific research questions include the status of women in the rural areas of Republic of Srpska, the role of government in fostering the empowerment of rural women, and the role of the extension service in supporting rural women. The methodology - inspired by the case study method developed by R. Yin - is designed along the three specific research questions that are used as building blocks. Each of the three research questions is investigated with a combination of methodological tools - including surveys, experts interviews and focus groups - aimed to overcome the lack of data and knowledge that characterize the research objectives.

After obtaining independence from the USSR in 1991, the Republic of Moldova carried out an insider privatization of the land belonging to former Soviet collective farms. As a result, almost 900,000 small family farms emerged, the majority of whom are still active today. Although they play an important socioeconomic role, policy makers neglect them as a residual, shrinking phenomenon. By adopting the theoretical perspective of peasant economics, this dissertation aims at assessing the health status of these farms over ten years after the land reform, and their evolution over time. Data from an original mixed quantitative and qualitative survey carried out on a sample of 126 farms in spring 2015, and the databases of the Household Budget Survey for the period 2006-2013 are used. The main drivers of farmers’ livelihood choices are identified by means of a 31-item Likert scale, and a comprehensive picture of the typical family farm is drawn. Farms are then grouped according to land size, level of commercialization and location, and their evolution over time is analyzed by means of Markov transition chains and multinomial logistic regressions. A focus on production strategies follows. Finally, the impact of agriculture on poverty levels and the implications of alternative livelihood choices are assessed by means of counterfactual incomes and life levels calculated through propensity score matching. It emerges that families were allocated land plots without the tools for working them. Therefore, they adopt low-input, labour-intensive production strategies and are mainly subsistence-oriented. Farm income, although small, plays a key role in relieving vulnerable people from poverty, so that land is a fundamental social buffer. Moreover, home food production is important for social and self-appraisal. For these reasons, an agricultural development strategy based on farm intensification rather than growth and on leasing rather than sale of land is proposed. / Dopo l’indipendenza dall’URSS (1991), la Moldavia ha privatizzato le terre delle fattorie collettive distribuendo voucher ai lavoratori. Questo processo ha generato circa 900.000 piccole aziende familiari, in maggioranza ancora attive. Benché rivestano un’importante funzione socioeconomica, queste sono trattate dalle istituzioni come un fenomeno residuale e in esaurimento. Adottando il punto di vista della peasant economy, questa tesi si ripropone di valutarne lo stato di salute a distanza di oltre dieci anni dalla riforma agraria. A tal fine, vengono utilizzati i dati raccolti dall’autore attraverso un’indagine realizzata nella primavera 2015 su un campione di 126 famiglie e le banche dati dell’Indagine sui Redditi delle Famiglie per il 2006-2013. In primo luogo, si identificano le motivazioni degli agricoltori e viene presentata una descrizione densa della tipica famiglia contadina. Successivamente, queste sono raggruppate secondo la terra posseduta, il livello di commercializzazione e la posizione geografica, e la loro evoluzione è analizzata usando matrici di transizione di Markov ed equazioni logistiche multinomiali. Segue un focus sulle strategie di produzione. Infine, l’impatto dell’agricoltura sulla povertà e le implicazioni di diverse strategie di sopravvivenza sono analizzati attraverso i redditi teorici calcolati con il propensity score matching. Emerge che le famiglie hanno ricevuto la terra ma non i mezzi per lavorarla, per cui sono costrette ad adottare tecniche di produzione ad alta intensità di lavoro e bassa intensità di capitale, e producono quasi esclusivamente per l’autoconsumo. Il reddito agricolo aiuta le famiglie vulnerabili a combattere la povertà, per cui la terra rappresenta uno strumento di welfare. Inoltre, la capacità di produrre cibo e la proprietà terriera sono motivo di autorealizzazione e generano considerazione sociale. Per questi motivi, si suggerisce una strategia di sviluppo agricolo che punti sull’intensificazione della produzione piuttosto che sulla concentrazione della proprietà e che agevoli l’affitto delle terre piuttosto che la loro vendita. / После провозглашения в 1991 году независимости, Республика Молдова провела процесс приватизации земли принадлежащей бывшим советским колхозам. Таким образом, появились почти 900.000 небольших семейных ферм, из которых многие ещё функционируют. Несмотря на то, что эти фермы играют важную социально-экономическую роль, законодатели пренебрегают ими, так как видят в них устаревший феномен, который скоро исчезнет. Приняв точку зрения теории крестьянского хозяйства, эта диссертация посвящена оценке состояния здоровья семейных хозяйств, за десять лет после принятия земельной реформы, и их эволюции во времени. Были использованы данные, собранные с помощью опроса, проведённого автором весной 2015 на образце 126 семей и базы данных Обследования Бюджетов Домашних хозяйств на 2006-2013 годы. Прежде всего, была выявлена мотивация фермеров с помощью 31 – балльной шкале Лайкерта, а также была представлена всеобъемлющая картина типичной семейной фермы. Затем, фермы были сгруппированы в соответствии с размером земельного участка, уровнем коммерциализации и географическим расположением. Их эволюция анализирована с помощью Марковских переходных цепей и мультиноминальных логистических регрессий. Следует анализ сфокусированный на стратегиях производства. Также анализируется, с помощью теоретических доходов которые были выявлены с использованием методологий propensity score matching, влияние сельского хозяйства на уровень бедности и последствия различных стратегий выживания. Выясняется, что семьям были выделены земельные участки без инструментов для обрабатывания их, поэтому они вынуждены выбрать для себя методы производства которые включают в себя интенсивные трудовые показатели при маленьких затрат и производят почти исключительно для собственного потребления. Доходы от семейных ферм, даже если они маленькие, играют ключевую роль в освобождении уязвимых групп населения от бедности, таким образом, земля является основным социальным амортизатором. Кроме того, производство домашних продуктов и владение землёй являются причиной для самореализации и порождает социальную позитивную оценку. По этим причинам, предлагается стратегия развития сельского хозяйство которое обратит внимание больше на интенсификации производства чем на увеличения размера земельных участков в собственности и на способствования арендования земли, а не на её продажу.

Apple scab caused by Venturia inaequalis is one of the most prevalent and devastating diseases of apple (Malus × domestica) worldwide. Breeding programs are attempting to introgress scab resistance genes from wild apples into commercial cultivars for sustainable disease control. Most of the commercially available scab-resistant varieties rely on the Rvi6 resistance gene from Malus floribunda 821. The evolution of new pathotypes of V. inaequalis, which have caused the breakdown of Rvi6-based resistance, highlights the need for the characterization and pyramiding of different scab resistance genes for durable scab resistance. This study was performed to characterize another scab resistance locus Rvi12 from Malus baccata ‘Hansen’s baccata #2’ (HB2). The Rvi12 locus was fine-mapped to a physical interval of approximately 882 kb by the use of ‘Golden Delicious’ reference genome guided marker development and a large mapping population. Through a BAC-library-based chromosome walking, additional markers were developed and a single BAC clone spanning the Rvi12 interval was identified. Following PacBio RS II sequencing and the use of the hierarchical genome assembly process, the BAC clone sequence was assembled. The Rvi12 resistance locus was further narrowed to a 62.3 kb genomic region of the HB2 genome. Gene prediction and in-silico characterization identified five putative candidate genes showing homology to known disease resistance genes or genes involved in disease resistance signaling. Protein domain analysis and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) of the five putative candidate genes indicated a LRR receptor-like serine/threonine kinase as the most likely candidate gene for Rvi12 resistance. Overall, the novel markers developed from this study will be useful for the marker-assisted selection of apple genotypes carrying the Rvi12 resistance. Further the identification of candidate gene for Rvi12 based scab resistance will provide the initial resources required for developing scab resistant transgenic or cisgenic apple lines with the Rvi12 resistance.

The thesis aims at analysing the role of collective action as a viable alternative to the traditional forms of intervention in agriculture in order to encourage the provision of agri-environmental public goods. Which are the main benefits of collective action, in terms of effectiveness and efficiency, compared to traditional market or public intervention policies? What are the drivers that encourage farmers to participate into collective action? To what extent it is possible to incorporate collective aspects into policies aimed at providing agri-environmental public goods? With the objective of addressing these research questions, the thesis is articulated in two levels: a theoretical analysis on the role of collective action in the provision of public goods and a specific investigation of two local initiative,s were an approach collective management of agro-environmental resources was successfully implemented. The first case study concerns a project named “Custodians of the Territory”, developed by the local agency in Tuscany “Comunità Montana Media Valle del Serchio”, which settled for an agreement with local farmers for a collective provision of environmental services related to the hydro-geological management of the district. The second case study is related to the territorial agri-environmental agreement experimented in Valdaso (Marche), where local farmers have adopted integrated pest management practices collectively with the aim of reducing the environmental impact of their farming practices. The analysis of these initiatives, carried out through participatory methods (Rapid Rural Appraisal), allowed developing a theoretical discussion on the role of innovative tools (such as co-production and co-management) in the provision of agri-environmental public goods. The case studies also provided some recommendations on the government intervention and policies needed to promote successful collective action for the provision of agri-environmental public goods. / La tesi si pone l’obiettivo di valutare il ruolo delle azioni collettive come una valida alternativa alle classiche forme di intervento in agricoltura, in particolare quelle volte ad incentivare la fornitura di beni pubblici ambientali. Quali sono i vantaggi delle azioni collettive, in termini di efficacia ed efficienza, rispetto alle classiche misure pubbliche o agli incentivi di mercato? Quali sono i drivers che spingono gli agricoltori a partecipare a progetti collettivi legati ai beni pubblici agro-ambientali? Attraverso quali strumenti di policy e quali assetti istituzionali è possibile favorire lo sviluppo di azioni collettive? Con l’obiettivo di rispondere a queste domande di ricerca, la tesi si articola su due livelli: un’analisi teorica sul ruolo delle azioni collettive nella fornitura dei beni pubblici e un’indagine specifica di due iniziative locali, dove si è sperimentato un approccio collettivo alla gestione delle risorse agro-ambientali. Il primo caso di studio riguarda il progetto denominato “Custodia del territorio”, sviluppato dall’ente gestore del comprensorio di Bonifica Media Valle del Serchio (Toscana), che prevede un accordo tra questo ente pubblico e gli agricoltori locali per la gestione idro-geologica del territorio in cui operano. Il secondo caso riguarda l’accordo agroambientale della Valdaso (Marche), dove gli agricoltori locali hanno adottato collettivamente pratiche di lotta integrata avanzata con l’obiettivo di ridurre l’impatto delle loro pratiche agricole sull’ambiente. L’analisi di queste iniziative, svolta attraverso metodologie partecipative (Rapid Rural Appraisal), ha permesso di sviluppate una riflessione teorica sul ruolo di strumenti innovativi (come co-produzione e co-gestione) alla gestione delle risorse agro-ambientali e di fornire raccomandazioni sul design e l’implementazione di politiche che possano favorire azioni collettive associate ai beni pubblici agro-ambientali.