Epidemiological data suggest a positive relationship between increased calcium intake and decreased fat and total body mass in healthy people (McCarron et al. 1984, Davies et al., 2000). An in-vitro model suggesting the role of cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP) and phosphodiesterase 3B (PDE 3B) has been implicated in the relationship between calcium and lipolysis (Xue et al., 2001). The objective of the series of studies presented in this thesis was to investigate the ergogenicity of supplementary calcium in endurance exercise via studying its influence on substrate metabolism and body composition. Study 1 examined the effects of four weeks of calcium (citrate) supplementation (1000 mg elemental calcium/day) on 60 minutes of cycling at a submaximal intensity of 50%Wpeak. The results of this study indicated that calcium supplementation significantly improved body composition of the participants with a greater fat loss and increased lean mass observed in highly trained athletes as compared to the recreationally trained participants. In addition, four weeks of calcium supplementation also showed an enhanced trend of availability of fatty substrates in the plasma and consequently an increased trend towards higher fat oxidation during submaximal exercise. Study 2 and 3 thus examined the effects of calcium supplementation directly on performance during endurance events (25 and 10 mile cycling time trials (TT)) in highly trained athletes. Results from these studies indicate that following calcium supplementation there was a meaningful improvement in power output (PO) (~4%) during the 25TT and ~2.7% in 10TT with corresponding better completion times in both the time trials. This amounts to an increase in ~2-3% higher PO%peak and ~3-5% increase in power output at lactate threshold, with the higher percentages attributable to the 25TT and the lower end to the 10TT. This increase in PO was achieved without the corresponding increase in oxygen consumption, thus significantly improving the gross efficiency of the cyclists. In addition, four weeks of calcium supplementation once again exhibited the same trends in body composition as observed in study 1 of decreased fat mass and a concurrent increase in lean mass. The results from this set of investigation indicate that calcium plays a multifactorial role in performance enhancement of endurance events. This may have been achieved via a combination of influence on substrate metabolism and body composition. The impact of calcium on fatigue mechanisms and vascular tone may have also played a part in increasing PO and thus efficiency of the athletes. Thus the potential of calcium to enhance performance needs further investigation in studies with larger sample sizes and different training status of athletes.

Plastics have become an integral part of our lives. However, the disposal of plastic waste poses an enormous problem to society. An ideal solution would be to break down a polymer into its monomer, which could then be used as the building-blocks to recreate the polymer. Unfortunately, the majority of plastics do not degrade readily into their monomer units. Thermal degradation of polymers usually follows a radical mechanism (which is of high energy and requires high temperatures) and produces a large proportion of straight chain alkanes, which have low relative octane number (RON) and so cannot be used in internal combustion engines. However, a suitable catalyst can help to branch straight alkane chains and so give high RON fuels that can be blended into commercial fuels. An extensive thermogravimetric study of polymer-catalyst mixtures was undertaken and produced dramatic reductions in the onset temperature of degradation and significant changes in the activation energy, suggesting a change to a desirable Brønsted- or Lewis-acid catalysed degradation mechanism in many cases. For example, GC-MS analysis of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) degraded with Fulcat 435 clay showed the polymer forming a large number of C6-C7 single-branched alkanes of intermediate RON value. In comparison, degradation of LDPE in the presence of a ZSM-5 zeolite (280z) resulted in the production of a large aromatic content (41% of Total Mass at 450ºC) together with branched C6-C8 hydrocarbons (40%). This formation of a large proportion of high RON components from polyethylene and other polymers could move us one step closer to tackling the enormous problem of plastic waste disposal that the world faces today.

When learning mathematics, deaf children of primary school age experience difficulties due to their disability. In Jordan, little research has been undertaken to understand the problems facing deaf children and their teachers. Frequently, children are educated in special schools for the deaf; the majority of deaf children tend not to be integrated into mainstream education although efforts are made to incorporate them into the system. Teachers in the main stream education system rarely have knowledge and experience to enable deaf students to reach their full potential. The methodological approach used in this research is a mixed one consisting of action research and Human Computer interaction (HCI) research. The target group was deaf children aged nine years (at the third grade) and their teachers in Jordanian schools. Mathematics was chosen as the main focus of this study because it is a universal subject with its own concepts and rules and at this level the teachers in the school have sufficient knowledge and experience to teach mathematics topics competently. In order to obtain a better understanding of the problems faced by teachers and the deaf children in learning mathematics, semi-structured interviews were undertaken and questionnaires distributed to teachers. The main aim at that stage of research was to explore the current use and status of the e-learning environment and LMS within the Jordanian schools for the deaf in Jordan. In later stages of this research, semi-structured interviews and questionnaires were used again to ascertain the effectiveness, usability and readiness of the adopted e-learning environment “Moodle. Finally pre-tests and post-tests used to assess the effectiveness of the e-learning environment and LMS. It is important to note that it was not intended to work with the children directly but were used as test subjects. Based on the requirements and recommendations of the teachers of the deaf, a key requirements scheme was developed. Four open source e-learning environments and LMS evaluated against the developed key requirements. The evaluation was based on a software engineering approache. The outcome of that evaluation was the adoption of an open source e-learning environment and LMS called “Moodle”. Moodle was presented to the teachers for the purpose of testing it. It was found it is the most suitable e-learning environment and LMS to be adapted for use by deaf children in Jordan based on the teachers requirements. Then Moodle was presented to the deaf children’s to use during this research. After use, the activities of the deaf and their teachers were used and analysed in terms of Human Computer Interaction (HCI) analysis. The analysis includes the readiness, usability, user satisfaction, ease of use, learnability, outcome/future use, content, collaboration & communication tools and functionality.

Based on the study of 34 healthy and 19 osteoarthritic knees in three different age groups (early, middle and late adulthood), this thesis reports the discovery of the potential of knee acoustic emission (AE) as a biomarker for quantitative assessment of joint ageing and degeneration. Signal processing and statistical analysis were conducted on the joint angle signals acquired using electronic goniometers attached to the lateral side of the legs during repeated sit- stand-sit movements. A four-phase movement model derived from joint angle measurement is proposed for statistical analysis, and it consists of the ascending- acceleration and ascending-deceleration phases in the sit-to- stand movement, followed by the descending-acceleration and descending-deceleration phases in the stand-to-sit movement. Through the quantitative assessment of joint angle signals based on the four-phase model established, statistical differences of different knee conditions related to age and degeneration were discovered based on cycle-by- cycle variations and movement symmetry. For AE burst signals acquired from piezo-electric sensors attached to the knee joints during repeated sit-stand-sit movements, the statistical analysis started from the quantity of AE events in the proposed four movement phases and extended to waveform features extracted from AE signals. While the quantity of AE events was found to follow certain statistical trends related to age and degeneration in each movement phase, detail statistical analysis of AE waveform features yielded the peak amplitude value and average signal level of each AE burst as two most significant features. An image based knee AE feature profile is presented based on 2D colour histograms formed by the peak amplitude value and average signal level in four movement phases. It provides not only a visual trend related to knee age and degeneration, but also enables visual assessment of the

The aim of this project is to determine whether a computer application can be used to develop phonemic awareness in the early primary classroom, which is a key component of phonics. This thesis explores the evolution of the strategy for teaching literacy in the UK which shows phonics to be a key component of that strategy. However, government reports which inform the direction of the literacy strategy call for more empirical study in all areas of literacy teaching; this thesis documents such an empirical study. This research project creates a phonics based computer application designed specifically for young children aged 5 to 6 years (year 1 in UK primary schools). The timing and level of content presented by the computer application activities are grounded in appropriate academic theory. A significant component of the work is the development of interface design guidelines for children’s applications. These guidelines are then used to inform the development of the phonics-based computer application. A Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT) is designed to determine the application’s effectiveness in developing the phonemic awareness skills of young children in a classroom setting. In order to control experimental bias resulting from problems with the usability of the computer interface, the usability of the application’s interface is evaluated in the classroom by year 1 children before the application is used in a pragmatic RCT. The results of the final usability evaluation found no usability issues and the application was wholly intuitive to the children in the evaluation groups. The results from the RCT (N=266) show no statistically significant improvement in the learning rate of phonemic awareness by the intervention group using the computer program compared to the traditional teacher-delivered paper-based method used with the control group, even though the computer program was designed carefully for this age range. The results did suggest however, that the intervention group developed at the same rate as the control group which implies that the computer program could be used to support teachers by reducing the amount of resource-intensive phonics tuition required by children in this age range.

This thesis examines the inhabitation of the lower Exe valley, between the Mesolithic and the Early Bronze Age through the evidence of a series of surface lithic scatters. Research draws on recent confident approaches to surface lithic scatters which view them as key data for understanding the inhabitation of prehistoric landscapes. Theoretically it draws on the dwelling perspective and proposes that both the contents of lithic scatters (the stone tools and debitage of which they are composed), and their contexts (the locations in which they are found) are inseparable parts of the same whole, and are implicated in the processes through which prehistoric populations came to understood and create their worlds. Research focuses on a small study area centred on the lower Exe valley, Devon. It is one of the most significant prehistoric landscapes in lowland southwest Britain and includes a large surface lithic collection spanning the Mesolithic to the Early Bronze Age. It also contains evidence for a number of contemporary monuments. Several methodologies are applied to the contents and contexts of the study area’s lithic assemblages. Methodologies utilised include lithic analysis, landscape phenomenology, LIDAR and vertical aerial photography, extensive geophysical survey and targeted excavation. Four themes are explored in relation to the study area’s archaeological record: • The character and composition of inhabitation • The temporality of inhabitation • Biographies of place • Scales of mobility and contact Results indicate the valley floor and its immediate western edge as a particular focus of activity during all periods. Against the background of increasing intensity and extent of inhabitation between the Mesolithic and Early Bronze Age, the repeated occupation of persistent places is noted. Repeated occupation of these locales is seen as key to the development of biographies of place which in turn act as anchors for subsequent acts of inhabitation and monument building. This thesis combines the analysis and interpretation of previously unpublished surface lithic assemblages, with the results of new archaeological fieldwork. At a regional level it has enhanced understanding of the prehistory of lowland Devon. In a wider context it offers a new theoretical and methodological approach to studying surface lithic scatters, and contributes to on going debates in landscape archaeology.

The purpose of this thesis was to examine the range of prospective memory and executive function deficits in ecstasy/polydrug users and the role of these processes in accounting for the observed prospective memory performance deficits. Using a variety of laboratory and self-report measures of prospective memory and a self-report measure of executive function, ecstasy/polydrug users were tested in laboratory settings on measures of event and time-based, short and long term prospective memory as well as on a wide range of executive function components. It was found that ecstasy/polydrug users in relation to non-users experience more general prospective memory problems as ecstasy/polydrug-related deficits were evident on both time and event-based and short and long-term prospective memory. Ecstasy/polydrug users also demonstrated deficits on executive processes suggesting that recreational drug users are impaired in a broader range of executive function and ecstasy/polydrug-related deficits are not restricted to the three-model component of executive function. It was also found that executive dysfunction is associated with poorer time-based prospective memory and perhaps some of the drug related prospective memory deficits are mediated by drug related executive function impairment. Finally, although few prospective memory or executive function performance deficits were evident among cannabis-only users a trend was evident in all investigations; ecstasy/polydrug users perform the worst, cannabis-only users at intermediate levels and drug-naïve perform the best. The most striking finding of the present thesis was that the recreational use of cocaine was associated with PM deficits; an association that consistently emerged in all studies of PM performance. The outcomes of the present thesis provide a fruitful direction for future research.

We address the issue of kinematic heating in disc galaxies by analysing a suite of cosmological Milky Way-type disc simulations run with different particle-and grid-based hydrodynamical codes and different resolution, and compare them with observations of the Milky Way. By studying the kinematics of disc stars in these simulations, we seek to determine whether or not the existence of a fragile thin disc is possible within a cosmological framework, where multiple mergers and interactions are the essence of galaxy formation. We study the velocity dispersion-age relation for disc stars at $z=0$ and find that four of the simulations, the stellar disc appears to undergo continual/secular heating. Two other simulations suggest a “saturation” in the heating profile for young stars in the disc. None of the simulations have thin discs as old as that of the Milky Way. We also analyse the kinematics of disc stars at the time of their birth, and find that in some simulations old stars are born cold within the disc and are subsequently heated, while other simulations possess old stellar populations, which are born relatively hot. The models which are in better agreement with observations of the Milky Way's stellar disc undergo significantly lower minor-merger/assembly activity after the last major merger. By running a set of isolated Milky Way-type simulations with different resolution and different density thresholds for star formation we conclude that, on top of the effects of mergers, there exists a ``floor'' in the dispersion that is related to the underlying treatment of the heating and cooling of the interstellar medium, and the low density threshold which such codes use for star formation. A persistent issue in simulations of disc galaxies is the formation of large spheroidal components, and disc galaxies with larger bulge to disc ratios than is observed. This problem is alleviated by supernova feedback. We found that by increasing the feedback in the simulations, we decrease the amount of stars that are accreted onto the main galaxy. The star formation is quenched more efficiently in low mass satellites when stronger feedback is implemented as well as in the main halo. These effects result in a disc galaxy, which has formed less stars overall, but more importantly, contains less accreted stars. As the strong stellar feedback quenches the star formation in the small building blocks, the metallicity of the accreted stars is lower than in the case where less feedback was used. In the context of hierarchical formation, mass assembly is expected to be scale free. Yet the properties of galaxies depend strongly on their mass. We examine how baryonic physics has different effects at different mass scales by analysing three cosmological simulations using the same initial conditions that are scaled to three different masses. Despite their identical dark matter merger history, we show that the simulated galaxies have significantly different stellar accretion histories. As we go down in mass, the lowest mass progenitors are unable to form stars, resulting in a low mass galaxy with less accreted stars. The overall chemical properties are also distinct at the different mass scales, as one might expect from the mass-metallicity relation of observed galaxies. We examine gradients of chemical abundances with radius and with height above the disc, and look for properties that are retained at different mass scales and properties which change, often dramatically. We analyse the kinematic and chemical properties of their accreted and in-situ populations. Again, trends can be found that persist at all mass scales, providing signatures of hierarchical structure formation. We find that accreted populations in the high mass simulation did not resemble any of the populations in the lower mass galaxies, showing that the chemical properties of proto-galaxies, which merge at high redshift to form massive galaxies, differ from the properties of low mass galaxies that survive at z=0. We probe further the signatures of hierarchical structure formation at smaller scales, in dwarf galaxies. We analysed the morphologies, kinematics and chemical properties of two simulated dwarf galaxies with different merger histories. We again analyse the accreted and in-situ populations. Observations of dwarf galaxies have found that they are comprised of multiple components. Our simulated dwarfs indicate that such populations may indeed be a manifestation of the hierarchical formation process in action in these lower mass galaxies. In one simulated dwarf, the in-situ stellar component forms a thin disc and a thick disc. We show that the thick disc in this simulation forms from in-situ stars that are born kinematically hot in the disc from early gas-rich mergers. The thin disc is formed quiescently from the later infall of gas. The accreted stars in the simulation were found to form an extended stellar halo. Chemical signatures of the three populations are also explored. The second dwarf we analysed has different galactic components, a result found to be due to the different merger history of this galaxy. The last major merger in this simulation occurs early on in the formation process between two proto-galaxies of similar mass. The result is a dwarf galaxy comprised of a disc formed of in-situ stars and a flattened rotating stellar halo formed of accreted stars. The angular momentum of the accreted and old in-insitu stars is obtained from the last major merger. We discuss the resemblance of this flattened rotating stellar halo to fast rotating flattened elliptical galaxies, and propose that such structures may explain some of the observed extra-galactic thick discs. These studies show that galactic properties emerge through the complex inter-play between hierarchical structure formation, star formation, and feedback from supernovae. Different modelling of these processes will alter the simulated galaxy's properties, and detailed comparisons with observations can then be made to determine the dominant processes responsible for different galactic properties. We remain optimistic that further improvement in modelling will allow deeper insights into the processes of galaxy formation and evolution.

We present an investigation into the environments of quasars with respect to galaxy clus- ters, and environment evolution with redshift and luminosity. The positions of quasars with respect to clusters have been studied using cluster and quasar catalogues available, covering the redshift range 0.2 < z < 1.2. The 2D projected separations and the 3D separations have been found and the orientation of the quasar with respect to the major axis of the closest cluster calculated, introducing new information to previous work. The positions of quasars with respect to clusters of galaxies will give an indication of the large scale environment of quasars and potentially clues as to which formation mechanisms are likely to dominate at various redshifts. For example, galaxy mergers are most likely to occur in galaxy group environments and will create luminous quasars. Galaxy harassment is more likely to occur on the outskirts of galaxy clusters and create lower luminosity AGN. Secular processes such as bar instability can also create AGN and are likely to be the cause of nuclear activity in isolated galaxies. The aim of this work is to study the large scale environment over a large redshift range and study the evolution as well as any change in environment with quasar luminosity and redshift. Another aim of this work is to study the orientation of a quasar with respect to a galaxy cluster. If galaxy clusters lie orientated along filaments, the position of a quasar with respect to a cluster will give an indication as to where quasars lie with respect to the filament and therefore the large scale structure. There is a deficit of quasars lying close to cluster centres for 0.4 < z < 0.8, indicating a preference for less dense environments, in agreement with previous work. Studying the separations as a function of cluster richness, there was a change in quasars lying closer to poorer clusters for z < 0.2 (Lietzen et al. 2009) to lying closer to richer clusters for 0.2 < z < 0.4, though more clusters at low redshifts will be needed to confirm this. There is no obvious relation between the orientation angle between a quasar and the major axis of the closest galaxy cluster and 2D projected separations. Using faint (Mr > −23.0 mag) and bright (Mr < −23.0 mag) quasars, there is no difference between the two magnitude samples for the 2D separations or the cluster richness, in contrast to Strand et al. (2008) who found brighter quasars lying in denser environments than dimmer quasars. These is no change with redshift (over 0 < z < 1.2) in the positions of the quasars with respect to the cluster or the cluster richness as a function of absolute quasar magnitude. There is also no preferred orientation between the quasar and the cluster major axis for bright or faint quasars. Spectra of a selection of 680 star forming galaxies, red galaxies, and AGN were taken by Luis Campusano and Ilona S¨ochting and 515 redshifts calculated. Though few of these galaxies turned out to be cluster members as was originally intended, it was possible to use these galaxies to study the environments of quasars with respect to star-forming galaxies and galaxy clusters. The objects were classified (33 classed as AGN), and star formation rates calculated and compared. Three AGN and 10 star forming galaxies lie at the same redshift (z = 0.29) as three galaxy clusters. The three galaxy clusters have the same orientation angle and may be part of a filament along with the star forming galaxies and AGN. Further study will investigate the relation between AGN positions and filaments of structure. A sample of quasar spectra taken by Lutz Haberzettl using Hectospec on the MMT were taken to increase the number of quasars used in this study. However, when studying the spectra, a number of high redshift quasars showed evidence of ultra-strong UV Feii emission in their spectra. The redshifts of these quasars were too high to be included in the main body of the study. However, a significantly large number of ultra-strong UV Feii emitting quasars have been found in the direction of three LQGs in the redshift range 1.1 < z < 1.6, including the Clowes-Campusano Large Quasar Group (CCLQG). Ly� fluorescence can increase the UV Feii emission. However, Ly� emission from other quasars was found to be negligible compared to emission from the quasar’s central source. Though there has been no previous indication that the LQG environment is unique, the high level of iron emission may indicate a difference in environment. Plans for future work based on these results are outlined.

This study investigates the relative impact of state sponsorship on the democratic effects of participation in the case of two Russian youth organisations – Nashi and the Young Guard, which were established with Kremlin support in 2005. In doing so this study questions the assumption that state involvement necessarily has a corrosive influence on participation and asserts the value of studying state-sponsored participatory initiatives. It concludes that the potential democratic effects of state-sponsored participation should not be disregarded solely on the basis of state involvement for two reasons: Firstly, the impact of state sponsorship on the democratic effects of participation is shaped by other factors, including the socio-political environment and the agency of participants. The state may have a vested interest in supporting some positive democratic effects of participation to further its own aims. Secondly, there are limits to the state‘s power to determine the democratic effects of participation. In particular, the state is unable to control the significance attached to participation by those involved. Without rejecting scholarly work on the Kremlin‘s questionable democratic credentials or on the pro-regime youth movements‘ numerous negative tendencies, this study contends that there is much more to these Kremlin-sponsored youth movements than existing portrayals allow.