Academic learning time (ALT) has long had the theoretical underpinnings sufficient to claim a causal relationship with academic achievement, but to this point empirical evidence has been lacking. This dearth of evidence has existed primarily due to difficulties associated with operationalizing ALT in traditional educational settings. Recent advancements in computer-based instruction provide an unprecedented opportunity to model ALT and to test the underlying theory. A widely-used computer-based early-reading curriculum was operationalized using Berliner's model of ALT (Berliner, 1991). This curriculum was then mapped to a computer-based assessment to determine an appropriate method of quantifying early-reading ALT. Software limitations required that ALT be quantified as a summative measure. Data were collected from 1,347 prekindergarteners and were analyzed using a dose-response approach that associated usage of the curriculum with a generalized variable of early-reading achievement. Gains across four early-reading skills were demonstrated via linear regression to be predicted by minutes of usage (Adj. R2 = .078). A sample optimized to test the hypothesis showed a stronger correlation (Adj. R2 = .096). Time spent using the Free Play version of the curriculum did not uniquely predict additional variance. Similarly, gains on reading skills that were not taught explicitly by the curriculum were not predicted by overall usage. These three results were interpreted as supporting the ALT learning model. Post-hoc analyses were performed on curriculum-usage compliance and on within-curriculum progress, both of which were statistically significant when added to the basic dose-response model. Multiple exploratory best-fit models were constructed. The strongest accounted for just under 20% of the overall variance (Adj. R2 = .186). Effect sizes were in the medium-to-large range for the entire sample (D = 0.71) with significant improvement for the optimized sample (D = 1.26). Children in the optimized sample who used the program over 20% more than recommended had even stronger gains (D = 1.67). The ability to remotely and accurately quantify interaction with a computer-based curriculum and assessment in the home defines a new vista in ALT research.

Reading has long been acknowledged to be a critical skill that is best acquired early in life. According to the most recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reports, American public school children continue to struggle to master the basics of reading. Although federal funding in real dollars has increased consistently over time, reading scores have not followed suit, suggesting that fiscal resources have not been applied successfully to the variables that are directly related to reading acquisition and achievement. The current state of affairs therefore suggests the need for identifying a fiscally-targetable, instructionally-relevant variable with a direct, causal relationship to early-reading achievement. One way to determine whether such a relationship exists between two variables is by means of dose-response methodology. Although this methodology has not been broadly implemented in educational research, it is attractive because it allows for the formal characterization and comparison of cause-effect relationships, and may also inform practice in readily implementable ways. Researchers have noted that time spent learning (TSL), and in particular academic learning time (ALT), is a promising candidate for a dose-response relationship with student achievement in early reading. Although ALT holds promise, there have traditionally been significant difficulties in operationalizing and quantifying it. The growing prevalence of academic software in the American public classroom holds promise for overcoming these challenges and provides an opportunity to test the hypothesis that there is a dose-response relationship between ALT and student achievement in early reading.

Over the past few years many changes have taken place in the content and presentation of teacher education programmes in South Africa due to the paradigm shift from teaching to learning. As a result, the primary learning environment for undergraduate students, the fairly passive lecture-discussion format where teacher educators talk and most students listen, is contrary to almost every principle of an optimal student learning setting. The current view in teacher education is that teacher educators should create learner-centred and learner-controlled environments where student learning and success determine the boundary. The idea of focusing on learning rather than teaching requires that teacher educators rethink their role and the role of students in the teaching and learning process. When focussing on learning rather than teaching, teacher educators must challenge their basic assumptions about how people learn and what the roles of teacher educators should be. It may be necessary to unlearn previously acquired teaching habits, and rethink the role of assessment and feedback in learning. Meaningful, formative assessment can play a key role in shifting to a learner-centred approach because it provides important information to both students and teacher educators at all stages of the learning process. To achieve this, it is essential that teacher educators do not simply add assessment as an extra to an existing, non-interactive scheme of work, but that they integrate assessment effectively and efficiently with their instruction. This requires a major shift in how assessment is planned and integrated and a working framework for integrating assessment with instruction can be most valuable to teacher educators. The purpose of this study was to: Determine the nature and scope of ESL teacher educators' tasks, within a Faculty of Education Sciences, at a tertiary institution. Determine the extent to which ESL teacher educators are implementing a learner-centred approach to teaching and learning. Identify the factors, if any, that impede the transition to a learner-centred approach to teaching and learning. Provide recommendations to facilitate the implementation of a learner-centred approach to teaching and learning. Determine how, when and how often ESL teacher educators are currently conducting assessment. Identify possible shortcomings of the existing assessment system of ESL teacher educators. Provide a framework for implementing assessment within a learner-centred approach to teaching and learning. A one-shot cross-sectional survey design was used in this study. The participants included all the teacher educators (N=5) within the Subject Group English in the Faculty of Education Sciences .at the Potchefstroom University. Three data collection techniques were used in this study, namely a questionnaire, semi-structured interviews and classroom observations. The purpose was to triangulate the data in order to get as complete a picture as possible of the extent to which the teacher educators' teaching and learning ~racticesre flected a focus on learner-centredness. The results of the study can be summarised as follows: Descriptive statistics (means and percentages) were used to analyse the data. The data collected during the interviews were reported as narratives. The results indicated that the teacher educators in this study spent a significant percentage of their time on preparation for class meetings and assessment. Each teacher educator taught for the full twelve weeks of each semester and, therefore, did not have one week free of teaching the entire year. Although the teacher educators embraced some learner-centred methods such as group work and interactive class discussions, they still assumed most of the responsibility for the learning processes and classroom behaviour of the students. They mainly focused on what to present in the contact sessions and spent time organizing presentations of information rather than developing materials to facilitate learning. The teacher educators often reverted to more familiar, traditional approaches and emphasized the following issues as affecting the effective and efficient transition to learner-centredness: curriculum coverage and lack of time, lack of proper training, size of student groups, other teacher educators' cynical attitudes and students' attitudes towards learning. The teacher educators made use of a variety of assessment methods and assessed students continuously, but these assessments were not used for promoting student learning, but rather for grading purposes. Students received traditional feedback such as grades, marks and scores, but they seldom received feedback on what they did wrong and how they could rectify it. Overall, it was assessment of learning and not assessment for learning. A major factor impeding the implementation of a learner-centred assessment approach was the demand formative assessment methods placed on the professional time of the teacher educators. In order to utilise time effectively and integrate assessment with the instructional design, teacher educators expressed the need for a workable framework to assist them in planning their assessment practices. / Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Over the past few years many changes have taken place in the content and presentation of teacher education programmes in South Africa due to the paradigm shift from teaching to learning. As a result, the primary learning environment for undergraduate students, the fairly passive lecture-discussion format where teacher educators talk and most students listen, is contrary to almost every principle of an optimal student learning setting. The current view in teacher education is that teacher educators should create learner-centred and learner-controlled environments where student learning and success determine the boundary. The idea of focusing on learning rather than teaching requires that teacher educators rethink their role and the role of students in the teaching and learning process. When focussing on learning rather than teaching, teacher educators must challenge their basic assumptions about how people learn and what the roles of teacher educators should be. It may be necessary to unlearn previously acquired teaching habits, and rethink the role of assessment and feedback in learning. Meaningful, formative assessment can play a key role in shifting to a learner-centred approach because it provides important information to both students and teacher educators at all stages of the learning process. To achieve this, it is essential that teacher educators do not simply add assessment as an extra to an existing, non-interactive scheme of work, but that they integrate assessment effectively and efficiently with their instruction. This requires a major shift in how assessment is planned and integrated and a working framework for integrating assessment with instruction can be most valuable to teacher educators. The purpose of this study was to: Determine the nature and scope of ESL teacher educators' tasks, within a Faculty of Education Sciences, at a tertiary institution. Determine the extent to which ESL teacher educators are implementing a learner-centred approach to teaching and learning. Identify the factors, if any, that impede the transition to a learner-centred approach to teaching and learning. Provide recommendations to facilitate the implementation of a learner-centred approach to teaching and learning. Determine how, when and how often ESL teacher educators are currently conducting assessment. Identify possible shortcomings of the existing assessment system of ESL teacher educators. Provide a framework for implementing assessment within a learner-centred approach to teaching and learning. A one-shot cross-sectional survey design was used in this study. The participants included all the teacher educators (N=5) within the Subject Group English in the Faculty of Education Sciences .at the Potchefstroom University. Three data collection techniques were used in this study, namely a questionnaire, semi-structured interviews and classroom observations. The purpose was to triangulate the data in order to get as complete a picture as possible of the extent to which the teacher educators' teaching and learning ~racticesre flected a focus on learner-centredness. The results of the study can be summarised as follows: Descriptive statistics (means and percentages) were used to analyse the data. The data collected during the interviews were reported as narratives. The results indicated that the teacher educators in this study spent a significant percentage of their time on preparation for class meetings and assessment. Each teacher educator taught for the full twelve weeks of each semester and, therefore, did not have one week free of teaching the entire year. Although the teacher educators embraced some learner-centred methods such as group work and interactive class discussions, they still assumed most of the responsibility for the learning processes and classroom behaviour of the students. They mainly focused on what to present in the contact sessions and spent time organizing presentations of information rather than developing materials to facilitate learning. The teacher educators often reverted to more familiar, traditional approaches and emphasized the following issues as affecting the effective and efficient transition to learner-centredness: curriculum coverage and lack of time, lack of proper training, size of student groups, other teacher educators' cynical attitudes and students' attitudes towards learning. The teacher educators made use of a variety of assessment methods and assessed students continuously, but these assessments were not used for promoting student learning, but rather for grading purposes. Students received traditional feedback such as grades, marks and scores, but they seldom received feedback on what they did wrong and how they could rectify it. Overall, it was assessment of learning and not assessment for learning. A major factor impeding the implementation of a learner-centred assessment approach was the demand formative assessment methods placed on the professional time of the teacher educators. In order to utilise time effectively and integrate assessment with the instructional design, teacher educators expressed the need for a workable framework to assist them in planning their assessment practices. / Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

One of the important characteristics of effective teaching is to devote sufficient time to appropriate physical activity in physical education classes. The purpose of this study was to compare teaching effectiveness of prospective and in-service teachers in relation to student behaviors, course content activities and Academic Learning Time in Physical Education (ALT-PE) scores. Participants were 26 prospective and 28 in-service physical education teachers. Forty-minute regular lessons (n=54) of each teacher were video recorded in their natural settings and observed with the ALT-PE observational instrument. Learner involvement behaviors, context levels and ALT-PE scores were compared for two groups of teachers. MANOVA results have shown significant differences in student behaviors and course content activities between the groups. While prospective teachers spent significantly more time with management content, in-service teachers spent significantly more time with warm-up activities. Students in the classes of prospective teachers spent significantly more time with off-task and interim behaviors, but students in the classes of in-service teachers spent significantly more time with on task behaviors. The results, however, indicated no significant differences between the groups in motor appropriate behaviors of students. ANOVA results indicated that students spent 17.9% (for prospective teachers), and 18.7% (for in-service teachers) of total class time with ALT-PE behaviors. It seems fair to suggest that prospective and in-service PE teachers should decrease the time on management, transition, waiting, and theoretical explanations, while allocating more time on physical activity.