Additive manufacturing (AM) is a novel near-net-shape manufacturing technology which deposited a component layer by layer directly from 3D CAD files. This rapid and complex weld pool process may introduce short and long range microstructure heterogeneities, which can potentially impact on the local mechanical properties of AM components. The present research thus focuses on the quantitatively analysing the microstructural heterogeneity, by the development and application of methods for the SEBM and WAAM Ti-6Al-4V parts. An additive manufacturing microstructure quantification tool, 'AMMQ', has been developed that combines automatic high resolution SEM image mapping with batch image analysis, to enable efficient quantification over large areas at the required resolution. It was found that the microstructural variation could be described by two key parameters, namely: the mean alpha plate spacing and mean β circularity of the retained β phase. The former corresponds to the combined effect of the rate of solid-state phase transformation upon cooling through the β transus in the first sub-Tβ thermal cycles followed by coarsening, whereas the latter attributes to a spheroidisation effect during subsequent re-heating and annealing below the β transus. The microstructure analysis algorithms showed adequate consistency for the possible varying imaging conditions, and for the different AM Ti-6Al-4V microstructure morphologies. In the SEBM specimens, a layer-scale periodicity in β phase circularity was detected, and a systematic drift of 'hot/cold regions was seen in the geometric specimens. Numerical modelling using a Rosenthal's model showed that the varied cooling conditions with respect to layer depth could be responsible for the layer-wise heterogeneity. Moreover, it has been shown that there is a direct linkage between thermal input, microstructure, and porosity density, as lack of fusion defects were detected in regions of low heat input, as inferred from local alpha plate measurements. This heterogeneity can firstly attribute to the SEBM control themes which were not optimised. Secondly, the heat dissipation condition for each geometry could also have affected the accumulated heat received for each volume of a part. In the WAAM specimens, a periodic microstructure pattern was consistently seen in the steady-state regions, where three typical microstructure morphologies were present: fine basketweave, colony alpha, and coarse basketweave. Micro-hardness mapping and in-situ tensile strain analysis were performed to investigate the microstructural influence on mechanical properties. It was found that both the hardness distribution and the tensile strain distribution was a function of the microstructural heterogeneity and that thin bands within each deposited layer with a colony alpha morphology appeared to be the main region of weakness within the deposited microstructures. Otherwise, the local hardness and tensile strength varied inversely to the local mean alpha plate spacing as expected. Finally, two important microstructure evolution mechanisms were proposed: i) alpha plate coarsening by the joining of neighbouring β layer as β phase volume fraction increases as the temperature approaches Tβ; ii) formation of the colony alpha by regrowth from a small fraction of alpha remnants at temperatures very close to Tβ.

The 21st century demand for innovation is leading towards a revolution in the way products are perceived. This will have a major impact on manufacturing technologies as current product innovation is constrained by the available manufacturing processes, which function independently. One of the most significant developments is the emergence of hybrid manufacturing technologies integrating various individual manufacturing processes. Hybrid processes utilise the advantages of the independent processes whilst minimising their weaknesses as well as extending application areas. Despite the fact that the drawbacks of the individual processes have been significantly reduced, the application of state of the art hybrid technology has always been constrained by the capabilities of their constituent processes either from technical limitations or production costs. In particular, it is virtually impossible to machine complex parts due to limited cutting tool accessibility. By contrast, additive manufacturing (AM) techniques completely solve the tool accessibility issue, but this increased flexibility and automation is achieved by compromising on part accuracy and surface quality. Furthermore, the shape and size of raw materials have to be specific for each hybrid process. More importantly, process planning methods capable of effectively utilising manufacturing resources for hybrid processes are highly limited. In this research, a hybrid process, entitled iAtractive, combining additive, subtractive and inspection processes is proposed. An experimental methodology has been designed and implemented, by which a generative reactionary process planning algorithm (GRP2A) and feature-based decision-making logic (FDL) is developed. GRP2A enables a complex part to be accurately manufactured as one complete unit in the shortest production time possible. FDL provides a number of manufacturing strategies, allowing existing parts to be reused and transformed into final parts with additional features and functionalities. A series of case studies have been manufactured from zero and existing parts, demonstrating the efficacy of the iAtractive process and the developed GRP2A and FDL, which are based on a manual process. The major contribution to knowledge is the new vision for a hybrid process, which is not constrained by the capability of the individual processes and raw material in terms of shape and size. It has been demonstrated that the hybrid process together with GRP2A and FDL provides an effective solution to flexibly and accurately manufacture complex part geometries as well as remanufacture existing parts.

3D printing has revolutionised traditional manufacturing methods, opening up and distributing design and production of low cost, custom objects to virtually anyone. Tailoring of print material and part geometry allows for the benefits of this technology to reach multiple engineering and scientific fields, given appropriate design. A multidisciplinary approach concerning development of new print materials and methods was undertaken with the aim of further expansion and application of 3D printing towards electrochemical applications. Specific requirements of materials used in this domain, such as conductivity and chemical stability, led to development of functional printable carbon composites, compatible with consumer grade 3D printers. This allows facile production of cheap, reusable, disposable, electrodes for analytical applications, demonstrating heavy metal detection in aqueous media and allowing further tailoring to specific applications to be easily implemented. A new method for printing of cellulose solutions was developed, with post processing of printed parts resulting in biocompatible, porous, conductive structures. When used as electrodes in microbial fuel cells, improved power and current output over traditionally used carbon cloth electrodes was achieved. Other developments resulting from this work applicable to other fields include a novel trajectory generation method based on exponential functions which can be applied to practically any robotic system, as well as improvements to the production process of metal alloy filaments for 3D printing of metallic components.

This thesis provided the foundational work for a low-cost three-dimensional (3D) printed custom knee brace. Specifically, the objective was to research, develop and implement a novel workflow aimed to be easy to use and available to anyone who has access to a smartphone camera and 3D printing services. The developed workflow was used to manufacture two prototypes which proved valuable in the design iterations. As a result, an improved hinge was designed which has increased mechanical strength. Additionally, a smartphone photogrammetry validation study was included which provided preliminary results on the accuracy and precision. This novel measurement method has the potential to require little training and could be disseminated through video instructions posted online. The intention is to enable the patient to collect their own “3D scan” with the help of a friend or family member, effectively removing the need to book an appointment simply for collecting custom measurements. Lastly, it would allow the clinician to focus all their time on clinically relevant design tasks such as checking alignment, fit and comfort, which could all potentially be improved by adopting such digital methods. The ultimate vision for this work is to enable manufacturing of better custom knee braces at a reduce cost which are easily accessible for low-income populations.

A research project was undertaken to integrate Ultrasonic Consolitation (UC) and Direct-Write (DW) technologies into a single apparatus to fabricate embedded electrical systems within an ultrasonically consolidated metallic enclosure. Process and design guidelines were developed after performing fundamental research on the operational capabilities of the implemented system. In order to develop such guidelines, numerous tests were performed on both UC and DW. The results from those tests, as well as the design and process guidelines for the fabrication of an embedded touch switch, can be used as a base for future research and experimentation on the UC-DW apparatus. The successful fabrication of an embedded touch switch proves the validity of the described design and process parameters and demonstrates the usefulness of this integration.

Three-dimensional, additive printing has emerged as an exciting new technology for the design and manufacture of small spacecraft systems. Using 3-D printed thermoplastic materials, hybrid rocket fuel grains can be printed with nearly any cross-sectional shape, and embedded cavities are easily achieved. Applying this technology to print fuel materials directly into a CubeSat frame results in an efficient, cost-effective alternative to existing CubeSat propulsion systems. Different 3-D printed materials and geometries were evaluated for their performance as propellants and as structural elements. Prototype "thrust columns" with embedded fuel ports were printed from a combination of acrylonitrile utadiene styrene (ABS) and VeroClear, a photopolymer substitute for acrylic. Gaseous oxygen was used as the oxidizer for hot-fire testing of prototype thrusters in ambient and vacuum conditions. Hot-fire testing in ambient and vacuum conditions on nine test articles with a combined total of 25 s burn time demonstrated performance repeatability. Vacuum specific impulse was measured at over 167 s and maximum thrust of individual thrust columns at 9.5 N. The expected ΔV to be provided by the four thrust columns of the consumable structure is approximately 37 m/s. With further development and testing, it is expected that the consumable structure has the potential to provide a much-needed propulsive solution within the CubeSat community with further applications for other small satellites.

Prior research focused on CMOS-MEMS integrated oscillator has been done using various foundry compatible integration techniques. In order to compensate the integration compatibility, MEMS resonators built on standard CMOS foundry process could not take full advantage of highest achievable quality factor on chip. System-in-package (SiP) and system-on-chip (SoC) is becoming the next generation of electronic packaging due to the need of multi-functional devices and multi-sensor systems, thus wafer level hybrid integration becomes the key to enable the full assembly of dissimilar devices. In this way, every active circuit and passive component can be individually optimized, so do the MEMS resonators and sustaining amplifier circuits. In this dissertation, GaAs-MEMS integrated oscillator in a hybrid packaging has been fully explored as an important functional block in the RF transceiver systems. This dissertation first presents design, micro-fabrication, simulation, testing and modeling of ZnO piezoelectrically-transduced MEMS resonators. A newly designed rectangular plate with curved resonator body fabricated in-house exhibits a very high Q of more 6,000 in the air for its width-extensional mode resonance at 166 MHz. In addition, a rectangular plate resonator with multiple Phononic Crystal (PC) strip tethers shows low insertion loss of -11.5 dB at 473.9 MHz with a Q of 2722.5 in the air. An oscillator technology with high-Q MEMS resonator as its tank circuit is presented to validate its key functionality as a stable frequency reference across a wide spectrum of frequencies. Particularly, a piezoelectrically-transduced width-extensional mode MEMS resonator is strategically designed to operate at two distinct layout-defined mechanical modal frequencies (259.5MHz and 436.7MHz). These devices were characterized and modeled by an extracted equivalent LCR circuit to facilitate the design of the oscillator using a standard circuit simulator. MEMS resonators have been integrated with the sustaining amplifier circuit at PCB level using wire-bonding technique and coaxial connectors. As shown by the time-domain measurements and frequency-domain measurements, these oscillators are capable of selectively locking into the resonance frequency of the tank circuit and generating a stable sinusoidal waveform. Meanwhile, the phase noise performance is rigorously investigated within a few oscillator designs. At last, 3-D printed hybrid packaging using additive manufacturing and laser machining technique has been developed for integrating a MEMS resonator on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) substrate and a GaAs sustaining amplifier. Fabrication process and fundamental characterization of this hybrid packaging has been demonstrated. On-wafer probe measurements of a 50 Ω microstrip line on ABS substrate exhibit its insertion loss of 0.028 dB/mm at 5 GHz, 0.187 dB/mm at 20 GHz and 0.512 dB/mm at 30 GHz, and show satisfactory input and output return loss with the 3-D printed package. Parylene N is also experimentally coated on the package for improving water resistance as a form of hermetic packaging.

Additive manufacturing processes, which utilize selective deposition of material rather than traditional subtractive methods, are very promising due to their ability to build complex, highly specific geometries in short periods of time. Three-dimensional direct inkjet printing is a relatively new additive process that promises to be more efficient, scalable, and financially feasible than others. Due to its novelty, however, numerous technical challenges remain to be overcome before it can attain widespread use. This thesis identifies those challenges and finds that material limitations are the most critical at this point. In the case of deposition of high viscosity polymers, for example, it is found that droplet formation is a limiting factor. Acoustic resonance jetting, a technology recently developed at Georgia Institute of Technology, may have the potential to address this limitation because it generates droplets using a physical mechanism different from those currently in use. This process focuses ultrasonic waves using cavity resonances to form a standing wave with high pressure gradients near the orifice of the nozzle, thereby ejecting droplets periodically. This thesis reports initial exploratory testing of this technologys performance with various material and process parameters. In addition, analytical and numerical analyses of the physical phenomena are presented. Results show that, while the pressures generated by the system are significant, energy losses due to viscous friction within the nozzle may prove to be prohibitive. This thesis identifies and begins evaluation of many of the process variables, providing a strong basis for continued investigation of this technology.

Laser Sintering, a method of additive manufacturing, is used in the production of concept models, functional prototypes, and end-use production parts. As the technology has transitioned from a product development tool to an accepted production technique, functional qualities have become increasingly important. Tension properties reported for popular polyamide sintering materials are comparable to the molded properties with the exception of elongation. Reported strains for laser sintered polyamide are in the 15-30% range with 200-400% strains reported for molding. (CES Edupack n.d.) The primary contributors to poor mechanical properties in polyamide materials used during Selective Laser Sintering® are studied. Methods to quantify decreased mechanical properties are compared against each other and against mechanical properties of components fabricated using multiple process parameters. Of primary interest are Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and Elongation at Break (EOB) of tensile specimens fabricated under conditions that produce varying degrees of ductile and brittle fracture. / text

Background: The applications for rapid prototyping have expanded dramatically over the last 20 years. In recent years, additive manufacturing has been intensely investigated for surgical implants, tissue scaffolds, and organs. There is, however, scant literature to date that has investigated the viability of 3D printing of surgical instruments. Materials and Methods: Using a fused deposition manufacturing (FDM) printer, an army/ navy surgical retractor was replicated from polylactic acid (PLA) filament. The retractor was sterilized using standard FDA approved glutaraldehyde protocols, tested for bacteria by PCR, and stressed until fracture in order to determine if the printed instrument could tolerate force beyond the demands of an operating room. Results: Printing required roughly 90 minutes. The instrument tolerated 13.6 kg of tangential force before failure, both before and after exposure to the sterilant. Freshly extruded PLA from the printer was sterile and produced no PCR product. Each instrument weighed 16g and required only $0.46 of PLA. Conclusions: Our estimates place the cost per unit of a 3D printed retractor to be roughly 1/10th the cost of a stainless steel instrument. The PLA Army/ Navy is strong enough for the demands of the operating room. Freshly extruded PLA in a clean environment, such as an OR, would produce a sterile, ready to use instrument. Due to the unprecedented accessibility of 3D printing technology world wide, and the cost efficiency of these instruments, there are far reaching implications for surgery in some underserved and less developed parts of the world.