2008 metais Kauno miškų urėdijoje atkurta 236,8 ha miško želdinių ir žėlinių, o apsaugota repelentais 97,8 ha. Iš to galima spręsti, kad nevisi miško želdiniai ir žėliniai yra apsaugoti nuo neigiamo elninių žvėrių poveikio. Apdoroti repelentais miško želdiniai ir žėliniai sudaro 41 % nuo visų įveistų miško želdinių ir žėlinių. Dar 8,7% miško želdinių ir žėlinių buvo apsaugota panaudojant tvoras, taip pat apie 2% panaudojant individualias apsaugos priemones. Iš to galima spręsti, kad buvo įveista 236,8 ha miško želdinių ir žėlinių, iš kurių 56,9% buvo apsaugota įvairiomis apsaugos priemonėmis nuo neigiamo elninių žvėrių poveikio. 2009 metais Kauno miškų urėdijoje atkurta 201,6 ha miško želdinių ir žėlinių, o apdorota repelentais 115,2 ha. Tai sudaro 57,1% nuo visų įveistų miško želdinių ir žėlinių ploto ir palyginus su ankstesniais metais galima spręsti jog jaunuolynų apsauga nuo elninių žvėrių padidėjo. Tuo pačiu 6,6% miško želdinių nuo bendro atkurtų želdinių ploto buvo apsaugota panaudojant vielos tinklą ir 2,9% miško želdinių ir žėlinių apsaugota panaudojant individualias apsaugos priemones. 2009 metais Kauno miškų urėdijoje įveista 201,6 ha miško želdinių ir žėlinių iš kurių 73,6 % apsaugota įvairiomis apsaugos priemonėmis nuo neigiamo elninių žvėrių poveikio. / In 2008 there were afforested 236,8 ha of forest land Kaunas State Forest Enterprise, both naturally and artificially. Among them 97,8 ha were covered by repellents. This shows, that not all artificially and naturally afforested plots were protected from negative impact of deer animals. Covered by repellents plots compose 41% from all afforested plots. Another 8,7% of afforested plots were fenced, yet 2% were protected by using of individual protective measures. This shows, that out of total afforested area (236,8 ha), 56,9% were protected by using different protective measures to avoid negative impact, caused by deer species. In 2009 there were afforested 201,6 ha of forest land Kaunas State Forest Enterprise, both naturally and artificially. Among them only 115,2 ha were covered by repellents. It compose 57,1% of all afforested areas. Comparing this with previous years, conclusion could be made, that protection from browsing and striping of young stands has increased. As well 6,6% of total afforested area were fenced, and 2,9% were protected by using individual protective measures. In total there were afforested 201,6 ha in Kaunas State Forest Enterprise during 2009, 73,6% of them were protected by using different protective measures to avoid negative impact, caused by deer animals.

Over the last 30 years, Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge in Southern Illinois has made a strong and well-documented effort to convert agricultural lands to forest to further their mission of wildlife and habitat conservation. Our research seeks to assess the influence that this land use conversion has on ecological function and to establish ecological indicators of successful restoration. We examined five potential soil-based indicators of ecological function across a chronosequence of afforested sites at the refuge and compared them to nearby row crop agricultural sites and mature forest sites with similar soils and landscape positions. Collected soil samples were analyzed for total carbon, total nitrogen, labile carbon, aggregate stability, and bulk density. Soil texture analysis was also conducted to validate comparisons among sites. The data were analyzed using a multivariate analysis of variance comparing land uses as well as linear regression analyses looking at the influence of age since restoration on an index value created by subtracting the soil indicator value of the nearby agricultural site from that of the forested site. The index value was used as the dependent variable in order to control for variation among sites and isolate the influence of age. Aggregate stability and labile carbon were positively correlated with age since restoration and bulk density was negatively correlated with age since restoration. These three soil parameters were promising indicators of restored ecological function in afforested sites. Target values for these indicators were proposed. Our results help to determine the timeframe in which these ecological functions return following restoration and can be used to assess the success of current and future afforestation projects.

Anthropogenically forced climate change has emerged as one of the most important, and polarizing, issues of our time. Afforestation generated carbon offset projects hold a position in Canada as potentially influential, yet frustratingly under-utilized, options to mitigate climate change. This dissertation responds to the question, “what are the economic implications of afforestation generated carbon offset institutions in Canada – and how appropriate are the tools of the New Institutional Economics (NIE) in their identification?” I establish the context for discussion by arguing that the NIE, as practiced, seems incapable of providing rigorous analysis while simultaneously responding to questions of power and distribution. The case of afforestation generated carbon offset marketing is presented as an appropriate context for exploring this point. A literature review is then used to establish general patterns regarding aggregating institutions for offset production and marketing, and aggregating institutions are presented as a response to the effects of transaction costs on the Canadian offset market. I then develop supply and demand curves to describe the equilibrium state of the Canadian offset market, into which the transaction costs borne by three aggregators are integrated. Their performance in fulfilling various policy objectives is evaluated. The results indicate that the primary variation between scenarios is the distribution of benefits. This focus on the distribution of benefits continues through demonstrating how subtle variations in modeling coefficients affect the regional distribution of afforestation projects within Canada, identifying the power associated with policy maker ideology. The role of policy maker ideology is then explicitly examined through a survey of government analysts and technicians and the application of discriminant analysis. The primary axes of afforestation ideology are identified, and demonstrated to be independent of concerns of transaction costs and aggregation. These results are integrated to argue that distributional concerns, particularly when ideologies are active in informing policy maker preferences, are critical to achieving sustainable policy outcomes, and that the NIE can respond to such concerns, but only if reform takes place to legitimate these techniques as part of the standard economic discourse.

Site quality, or the ability of land to grow trees, is an important component for identifying the most appropriate locations for establishing plantations of fast growing tree species to meet societys demands for timber and other environmental benefits. The goal of this thesis project was to predict site quality for poplars using soil and site information in Saskatchewan, Alberta and Quebec and to examine the effect of site quality on competition control in hybrid poplar plantations in Saskatchewan.<p>The first study examined factors affecting trembling aspen productivity in the boreal shield ecozone of Quebec on till and fluvial parent materials using general map data and measured soil and site information. Relationships with productivity were stronger using measured soil and site variables for individual parent materials (R2>0.6) than using general map data only (R2<0.25). Including biological variables, such as overstory species composition, had a major impact on site quality with conifer dominance negatively impacting the growth of trembling aspen.<p>The second study examined the factors affecting trembling aspen productivity in the boreal transition ecoregion of Saskatchewan on three different soil parent materials: fluvial, lacustrine and till. Relationships with productivity were stronger using soil and site variables for individual parent materials (R2 0.48-0.58) than using agricultural capability classes or other soil properties for all plots combined (R2<0.2). For fluvial and lacustrine sites, increasing clay content and nutrient availability (e.g. pH and total N) were positively related to productivity while tree productivity was negatively related to poor drainage for till sites. <p>The third study examined the factors affecting site quality for a single hybrid poplar clone in industrial plantations in Alberta at both the local scale (between plantations) and the microsite scale (within plantations). At the local scale, foliar P and Cu concentrations, soil water availability and drainage, and Ca and Mn in the C horizon were related to hybrid poplar productivity. There were also curved relationships with productivity and soil texture in the B horizon and pH of the A horizon, indicating an optimal range for poplar growth. At the microsite scale, soil texture was the best predictor of productivity with different relationships at each site depending on where the sites were in relation to the optimal soil texture.<p>The final study examined the response of hybrid poplar plantations in Saskatchewan to interspecific competition control on a range of site productivities. Competition control greatly increased tree growth with the greatest benefit being on the best quality sites. Both water and nutrients were highly competed for between trees and weeds. In the weed-free plots, tree growth was positively related to the amount of silt and clay in the soil and foliar P concentrations. This series of studies has demonstrated that it should be possible to predict poplar productivity reasonably well using only soil and site information within limited areas across Canada. However, the important drivers of productivity varied between the regions studied and between site groupings, such as by parent material, within local areas. This information can now be used to help land managers make better decisions regarding the establishment and management of plantations of fast growing tree species, notably hybrid poplar plantations.

Anthropogenically forced climate change has emerged as one of the most important, and polarizing, issues of our time. Afforestation generated carbon offset projects hold a position in Canada as potentially influential, yet frustratingly under-utilized, options to mitigate climate change. This dissertation responds to the question, “what are the economic implications of afforestation generated carbon offset institutions in Canada – and how appropriate are the tools of the New Institutional Economics (NIE) in their identification?” I establish the context for discussion by arguing that the NIE, as practiced, seems incapable of providing rigorous analysis while simultaneously responding to questions of power and distribution. The case of afforestation generated carbon offset marketing is presented as an appropriate context for exploring this point. A literature review is then used to establish general patterns regarding aggregating institutions for offset production and marketing, and aggregating institutions are presented as a response to the effects of transaction costs on the Canadian offset market. I then develop supply and demand curves to describe the equilibrium state of the Canadian offset market, into which the transaction costs borne by three aggregators are integrated. Their performance in fulfilling various policy objectives is evaluated. The results indicate that the primary variation between scenarios is the distribution of benefits. This focus on the distribution of benefits continues through demonstrating how subtle variations in modeling coefficients affect the regional distribution of afforestation projects within Canada, identifying the power associated with policy maker ideology. The role of policy maker ideology is then explicitly examined through a survey of government analysts and technicians and the application of discriminant analysis. The primary axes of afforestation ideology are identified, and demonstrated to be independent of concerns of transaction costs and aggregation. These results are integrated to argue that distributional concerns, particularly when ideologies are active in informing policy maker preferences, are critical to achieving sustainable policy outcomes, and that the NIE can respond to such concerns, but only if reform takes place to legitimate these techniques as part of the standard economic discourse.

Site quality, or the ability of land to grow trees, is an important component for identifying the most appropriate locations for establishing plantations of fast growing tree species to meet societys demands for timber and other environmental benefits. The goal of this thesis project was to predict site quality for poplars using soil and site information in Saskatchewan, Alberta and Quebec and to examine the effect of site quality on competition control in hybrid poplar plantations in Saskatchewan.<p>The first study examined factors affecting trembling aspen productivity in the boreal shield ecozone of Quebec on till and fluvial parent materials using general map data and measured soil and site information. Relationships with productivity were stronger using measured soil and site variables for individual parent materials (R2>0.6) than using general map data only (R2<0.25). Including biological variables, such as overstory species composition, had a major impact on site quality with conifer dominance negatively impacting the growth of trembling aspen.<p>The second study examined the factors affecting trembling aspen productivity in the boreal transition ecoregion of Saskatchewan on three different soil parent materials: fluvial, lacustrine and till. Relationships with productivity were stronger using soil and site variables for individual parent materials (R2 0.48-0.58) than using agricultural capability classes or other soil properties for all plots combined (R2<0.2). For fluvial and lacustrine sites, increasing clay content and nutrient availability (e.g. pH and total N) were positively related to productivity while tree productivity was negatively related to poor drainage for till sites. <p>The third study examined the factors affecting site quality for a single hybrid poplar clone in industrial plantations in Alberta at both the local scale (between plantations) and the microsite scale (within plantations). At the local scale, foliar P and Cu concentrations, soil water availability and drainage, and Ca and Mn in the C horizon were related to hybrid poplar productivity. There were also curved relationships with productivity and soil texture in the B horizon and pH of the A horizon, indicating an optimal range for poplar growth. At the microsite scale, soil texture was the best predictor of productivity with different relationships at each site depending on where the sites were in relation to the optimal soil texture.<p>The final study examined the response of hybrid poplar plantations in Saskatchewan to interspecific competition control on a range of site productivities. Competition control greatly increased tree growth with the greatest benefit being on the best quality sites. Both water and nutrients were highly competed for between trees and weeds. In the weed-free plots, tree growth was positively related to the amount of silt and clay in the soil and foliar P concentrations. This series of studies has demonstrated that it should be possible to predict poplar productivity reasonably well using only soil and site information within limited areas across Canada. However, the important drivers of productivity varied between the regions studied and between site groupings, such as by parent material, within local areas. This information can now be used to help land managers make better decisions regarding the establishment and management of plantations of fast growing tree species, notably hybrid poplar plantations.

Submitted by RAFAEL RIBEIRO SOLER null (rrsoler22@hotmail.com) on 2016-09-20T18:06:39Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Rafael Ribeiro Soler.pdf: 1693712 bytes, checksum: cabe4e829a826fc5c365d6794d811a07 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Juliano Benedito Ferreira (julianoferreira@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-09-22T19:41:29Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 soler_rb_me_bot.pdf: 1693712 bytes, checksum: cabe4e829a826fc5c365d6794d811a07 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-22T19:41:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 soler_rb_me_bot.pdf: 1693712 bytes, checksum: cabe4e829a826fc5c365d6794d811a07 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-07-27 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O plantio de Pinus spp. no Brasil concentra-se principalmente na região sul do país devido às suas condições edafoclimáticas que favorecem seu desenvolvimento. As áreas de plantio de culturas florestais são as mais adversas, inclusive com relevos declivosos onde o cultivo agrícola e/ou pastoril não é o mais recomendado. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o rendimento operacional de um conjunto plantador, composto por uma escavadora hidráulica com esteiras do modelo 200 D LC1 e um cabeçote Bracke Planter P11.a1, realizando o preparo de solo e o plantio em duas classes de declividade e em duas condições de presença de resíduos e avaliar qualitativamente as mudas plantadas. A área experimental situa-se em Lages, SC, na fazenda Guará pertencente à empresa Klabin, onde foram plantadas mudas de Pinus taeda. O preparo de solo foi realizado por um implemento adaptado, contendo três hastes, na base do cabeçote e o plantio e a irrigação foram realizados pelo cabeçote plantador. Os dados foram coletados conforme o operador realizava o plantio, segundo as indicações da empresa, impossibilitando a casualização dos dados. O delineamento experimental adotado foi classificatório, onde a área do experimento sofreu uma divisão conforme as condições de relevo, ondulado e forte ondulado, e de presença de resíduos. Para efeito de comparação das variáveis, produtividade sem e com abastecimento de mudas no carrossel, foi realizada a ANOVA para o modelo com dois fatores, e, posteriormente, efetuado o teste de comparações múltiplas de Tukey a 5% de significância. Para a qualidade silvicultural pós-plantio, foi realizado o teste Qui-quadrado para comparar a distribuição das proporções e o teste de Goodman para contrastes entre e dentro de populações multinomiais. Não houve efeito da interação entre os fatores e nem do relevo, apenas a presença de resíduos se mostrou estatisticamente significativa, obtendo valores de 208 mudas hora-1 para a produtividade com abastecimento e em área com resíduo e 294 mudas hora-1 para a produtividade sem abastecimento e em área sem resíduo. A eficiência operacional durante o estudo foi de 75,13% e a disponibilidade mecânica de 79,6%, valores superiores aos encontrados na bibliografia para operadores inexperientes com o uso deste cabeçote. Quanto aos parâmetros qualitativos, apenas a fixação das mudas obteve diferença estatisticamente significativa entre os tratamentos: ondulado sem resíduo e o forte ondulado com resíduo. Esta diferença foi verificada também com as mudas inclinadas, entre os tratamentos forte ondulado com e sem resíduos. A presença de resíduos afetou a produtividade e a fixação das mudas, enquanto que o relevo mais declivoso interferiu na fixação das mudas. / The Pinus spp. planting in Brazil concetrates principally in the South of the country because of the soil and climatic conditions favor its development. The areas of the forestry plantations are the most adverse, inclusively with steep reliefs where the agricultural and/or pastoral cultivation are not the most recommended. The aim of this study was to evaluate the yield of a planter group, composed of a hydraulic excavator with belts model 200 D LC and a Bracke Planter P11.a head, performing the soil preparation and the planting in two slope classes and in two conditions of presence of slash, besides of to evaluate in a qualitative way the planted seedlings.The experimental area is located in Lages, state of Santa Catarina, in a farm called Guará, which belongs to the company Klabin, and where it was planted Pinus taeda seedlings.The soil preparation was realized by an adapted implement having three rods on the basis of the head, and the planting and the irrigation were performed by the planter head.The data were collected while the operator performed the planting, according to the company directions, what made impossible the data casualization. The experimental design adopted was qualifying, where the experimental area suffered a division according to the relief conditions: wavy, strong wavy, and presence of slash. By comparison of the variables, productivity with and without filling of seedlings on the carousel, it was performed the ANOVA for the model with two factors and, afterwards, made the multiple comparison test of Tukey at 5% of significance. For the post-plantation silvicultural quality, it was realized the Chi-square test to compare the distribution of proportions and the Goodman Test for contrasts between and within multinomial populations. There was no effect of the interaction between the factors and neither of the relief, only the presence of slash was statistically significant, resulting in values of 208 seedlings hour-1 for the productivity with filling and in area with slash, and 294 seedlings hour-1 for the productivity without filling and area without slash.The operational efficiency during the study was 75.13% and the mechanical availability of 79.6%, higher values than those found in the literature for inexperienced operators with the use of this head. About the qualitative parameters, just the seedlings fixation showed a significant statistically difference between the treatments wavy without slash and the strong wavy with slash. This difference was also verified with the inclined seedlings, between the treatments strong wavy with and without slash. The presence of slash affected the productivity and the seedlings fixation, while the steeper relief interfered on the seedlings fixation.

Afforestation is considered to be one of the leading land-use changes affecting ecosystem function and diversity. This study investigates the impact of pine afforestation on microclimate and soil in fragments of highly vulnerable Afromontane grassland at Groenvaly. Three major challenges for afforestation research are identified as (i) the range and intricacy of the impact of afforestation, (ii) differences in measurement and monitoring periods and (iii) a lack of focus on biomes adjacent to plantations. The approach here aimed to address these three areas. Air microclimate data were collected for 24 months within a plantation site, a control grassland site and a grassland fragment using three Davis Vantage Pro2 weather stations. Soil temperature data were logged on iButtonsTM for 18 months and soil samples from four seasons were analysed for moisture content, nitrogen (N), nitrate, ammonium, phosphorous (P), pH, sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and soil organic carbon (SOC). All data were statistically analysed at within-site, between-site, seasonal and mean scales and each analysis highlighted different conclusions. Results for the chemicals properties of the individual grassland fragments did not exhibit within-site variation except for K and P and between-site variation was only evident for N, nitrate, moisture and SOC. Solar irradiance was reduced in the fragments only during winter while SOC and P in the fragments only differed from the control grassland sites in summer and autumn respectively. Mean values for P, pH, Na, Ca, K, SOC and soil moisture within the fragments’ soil were between those of the control grassland and the plantation while N and Mg values were closer to the plantation than the control grassland. Mean values for air temperature, wind speed, solar irradiance and humidity within the fragment were closer to the control grassland than the plantation. Soil temperatures at 2cm in the fragments were similar to the control grassland, while temperatures at 10cm below the surface were lower than both the control grassland and the plantation sites in winter. Maximum air temperatures in the fragments were lowered in summer and raised in winter but minimum air temperatures were raised in the fragments across all seasons. Results of this study show that there are different impacts in different seasons while overall mean data indicate that the fragments’ soil is affected, and microclimate is unaffected, by the plantation. The impact of the change in soil and microclimate in grassland fragments requires more investigation to determine if grassland fragments are a suitable conservation strategy in pine plantations. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology / unrestricted

This study explores the biophysical potential and economic attractiveness of black spruce (Picea mariana) regeneration in eastern Canada under future climate changes. It integrates process-based ecosystem model simulated forest productivities from three major global climate models (GCMs), growth and yield formulations specific to black spruce and economic analyses to determine the overall investment value of black spruce, both including and excluding carbon sequestration benefits. Net present value (NPV) was estimated to represent the financial attractiveness of long-rotation forest plantations through time. It was assumed that stands would not be harvested at volumes less than 80 m3 ha-1. The price of stumpage was set to $20 m-3, stand establishment cost was set to $500 ha-1, and the discount rate was considered at 4%, with sensitivity analyses conducted around these assumptions. The growth and yield of black spruce was simulated for an extreme future climate scenario – IPCC-RCP 8.5. The results suggested a general North-South gradient in forest productivity where gross merchantable wood volumes increased with decreasing latitudes. This pattern was also observed in NPVs, with higher values projected for the southern portion of the study area. Based on the base economic assumptions and sensitivity analyses, study results suggested that black spruce plantations are not economically attractive, unless carbon sequestration benefits of at least $5 ton-1 CO2 are realized. Further sensitivity analyses showed that discount rate plays a significant role in determining the optimal harvest age and value. Furthermore, the optimal harvest rotation age increases with increasing carbon price by approximately 9 to 18 years. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Mammalian herbivory of bottomland hardwood seedlings has been listed as one of the primary causal factors of failed afforestation efforts in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley (LMAV). This study examined the biological and economic effects of mammalian herbivory on recently afforested carbon sequestration sites in the LMAV. Selected seedlings of six planting mixes were observed through the first year following planting to monitor seedling survival, growth, and mammalian herbivory. It was determined that greater than 10% of selected seedlings were browsed by various mammalian herbivore species, and some species mixes were browsed in excess of 50%. Financial analyses compared alternative afforestation strategies and determined to what extent herbivore-induced seedling mortality could reduce investment returns of landowners engaged in afforestation activities. In the presence of extreme mammalian herbivory, landowner returns can be reduced by hundreds of dollars per acre and could prevent further afforestation activities in the LMAV.