The study concerns the effects on the course of agricultural land-use change of the local domination of land occupancy by sub-full-time farms; in particular the effect of non-agricultural occupations on the land-use of individual farm operators is central. Land-use <i>changes</i> in the West Highlands of Scotland (1947-79) were charted for 66 Parishes, which were subjected to a hierarchical fusion of 'similar experience' of change. Resultant clusters were compared in terms of structural attributes. Differentiation was found at two levels: between areas of high viz low percentages of part-time holdings and within the sub-full-time fractions, related to relative proportions of holdings of 40-135, and 135-270 Standard Man Days. 'Insignificant' holdings (<40 SMDs) were found not to be of a characteristic land-use 'type' but instead operated enterprises of similar form to larger units. In three areas of crofting townships land-use and enterprise characteristics were found not to be a sole function of size of holdings or labour availability, (estimated from household demographic and employment criteria). Non-farm occupational characteristics (full-time; part-time; seasonal etc) related to the scale of enterprise but less so to the type of enterprise. Occupants with off-farm work did not specialise <i>per se</i> in low-labour demanding activities. Linear programming was used to estimate optimal land-use intensity from land capability and labour data. Occupational factors related to sub-optimal land-use intensity as did occupants' age. A method derived from Point Score Analysis of decision-making factors showed that certain factors serve as 'constraints' on choices of specific groups of individuals. Off-farm work was found to be the most important such constraint.

Sustainability is one of the biggest goals of humankind in the new millennium. An increasing global demand on agricultural products stimulates agricultural expansion in Brazil, especially in the Southwestern Amazon, namely in the Cerrado and Amazon biomes. A better understanding of biogeochemical cycles and their influence on natural and agricultural systems is key to achieve environmental sustainability and improve agricultural efficiency. These biogeochemical cycles are driven by microbes, and the aim of this thesis was to correlate microbial functional group abundances with differences in carbon, nitrogen, and greenhouse gas cycles in response to land use changes in Southwestern Amazon soils. This work was performed at the University of São Paulo, Brazil, and at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA, while the candidate was enrolled in Ph.D. programs at both universities. The thesis is composed of five studies. The first study shows that land use change from Cerrado and forest to agriculture (soybean, Glycine max (L. Merrill), in succession with other crops) or pasture (Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) did not reduce soil microbial diversity but changed microbial structure. The second study, a physicochemical background for this land use conversion, describes the alteration of C and N stocks, soil chemical parameters, and microbiological parameters such as biomass, biological C stocks, and changes in the abundance of prokaryotes and fungi. In the third and fourth studies microcosm experiments depict how the agricultural change to soybean and Brachiaria alter the original microbial structure found in forest or cerrado. These studies focused on abundances of key biogeochemical genes (amoA, nirK, nirS, norB, nosZ, mcrA, and pmoA) and correlated gene copy abundances with C, N, and GHG measurements. In the fifth study, in situ soil surveys and GHG samplings were used to characterize the changes from forest to pasture (B. brizantha, 25 years) or soybean crop system (for 2 years or 25 years in succession). We found correlations between genes and processes, indicating that gene abundances provide important microbial information for the understanding of the targeted biogeochemical cycles. Land use, rather than plant species, promotes alterations in microbial gene abundances and processes. During the survey period, forest exhibited higher microbial activity, resulting in higher nitrate availability and N2O emissions. These processes were correlated with higher abundances of process related genes. Nitrate and N2O emissions were lower in agricultural and pasture soils. CO2 emission was higher in the two-year-old soybean plot. The forest and two-year-old soybean plots acted as a sink for CH4, while the pasture plots represented a source of it. The results validated the use of gene abundance determination as a valuable tool to better understand C, N, and GHG processes. The genes nirK, nosZ, and 16S rRNA presented the best correlations with the processes. A larger temporal and spatial analysis is needed to infer statements on the processes dynamics due to land use change. For the first time gene abundance measurements were used to integrate the C, N and GHG cycles, giving insights into land use changes in Southwestern Amazon / Sustentabilidade é um dos maiores objetivos da humanidade no novo milênio. Uma demanda crescente por produtos agrícolas tem estimulado a expansão agrícola no Brasil, especialmente no Sudoeste da Amazônia, nos biomas Cerrado e Amazônia. Um melhor entendimento dos ciclos biogeoquímicos e suas influências em sistemas naturais e agrícolas é chave para se alcançar sustentabilidade ambiental e aumentar eficiência agrícola. Esses ciclos biogeoquímicos são guiados por microrganismos, e o objetivo dessa tese foi correlacionar abundância de grupos funcionais de microrganismos com carbono, nitrogênio e gases de efeito estufa (GEE) em resposta a mudança do uso da terra em solos do sudoeste da Amazônia. Esse trabalho foi realizado na Universidade de São Paulo e na Universidade de Massachusetts Amherst enquanto o doutorando esteve matriculado nas duas universidades. A tese é composta de cinco estudos. O primeiro estudo mostra que a mudança no uso da terra de Cerrado e floresta para agricultura (soja, Glycine max (L. Merrill), em sucessão com outros cultivos) ou pastagem (Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) não reduz diversidade microbiana, mas muda sua estrutura. O segundo estudo descreve as alterações nos estoques de C, N, parâmetros químicos e microbiológicos da conversão de Cerrado para agricultura e pastagem. No terceiro e no quarto estudos, microcosmos foram usados para avaliar a influência de soja e braquiária na microbiota dos solos. Genes chaves dos processos biogeoquímicos (amoA, nirK, nirS, norB, nosZ, mcrA, e pmoA) foram quantificados e correlacionados com C, N e GEE. No quinto estudo, coletas in situ de solo e gases foram usadss para caracterizar a mudança do uso da terra de floresta para pastagem (braquiária, 25 anos) e para agricultura (soja, segundo ano, e soja, 25 anos, em sucessão com outras culturas). Correlações entre genes e processos foram encontradas, indicando que abundância gênica fornece importantes informações para o entendimento dos ciclos biogeoquímicos. Mudança no uso da terra como um todo, mais do que a mudança de vegetação, promove as alterações na abundância gênica e processos do solo. Durante o período de coleta, floresta exibiu maior atividade microbiana, resultando em maior disponibilidade de nitrato e emissão de N2O. Esses processos correlacionam com maior abundância dos genes relacionados aos processos. Quantidades de nitrato e N2O foram menores em agricultura e pastagem. As emissões de CO2 foram maiores na área de soja de segundo ano. Os solos de floresta e soja de segundo ano se mostraram como drenos de metano, enquanto que a pastagem foi uma fonte de emissão. Os resultados validam o uso de abundância gênica como uma técnica valiosa para um melhor entendimento dos ciclos do C, N e GEE. Os genes nirK, nosZ, e 16S rRNA apresentaram as melhores correlações com os processos. Uma análise temporal e espacial mais abrangente é necessária para generalizações sobre a dinâmica dos processos na região estudada. Pela primeira vez abundância gênica foi usada para integrar os ciclos do C, N e GEE, colaborando para um melhor entendimento dos processos relacionados à mudança no uso da terra no sudoeste da Amazônia

Sustainability is one of the biggest goals of humankind in the new millennium. An increasing global demand on agricultural products stimulates agricultural expansion in Brazil, especially in the Southwestern Amazon, namely in the Cerrado and Amazon biomes. A better understanding of biogeochemical cycles and their influence on natural and agricultural systems is key to achieve environmental sustainability and improve agricultural efficiency. These biogeochemical cycles are driven by microbes, and the aim of this thesis was to correlate microbial functional group abundances with differences in carbon, nitrogen, and greenhouse gas cycles in response to land use changes in Southwestern Amazon soils. This work was performed at the University of São Paulo, Brazil, and at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA, while the candidate was enrolled in Ph.D. programs at both universities. The thesis is composed of five studies. The first study shows that land use change from Cerrado and forest to agriculture (soybean, Glycine max (L. Merrill), in succession with other crops) or pasture (Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) did not reduce soil microbial diversity but changed microbial structure. The second study, a physicochemical background for this land use conversion, describes the alteration of C and N stocks, soil chemical parameters, and microbiological parameters such as biomass, biological C stocks, and changes in the abundance of prokaryotes and fungi. In the third and fourth studies microcosm experiments depict how the agricultural change to soybean and Brachiaria alter the original microbial structure found in forest or cerrado. These studies focused on abundances of key biogeochemical genes (amoA, nirK, nirS, norB, nosZ, mcrA, and pmoA) and correlated gene copy abundances with C, N, and GHG measurements. In the fifth study, in situ soil surveys and GHG samplings were used to characterize the changes from forest to pasture (B. brizantha, 25 years) or soybean crop system (for 2 years or 25 years in succession). We found correlations between genes and processes, indicating that gene abundances provide important microbial information for the understanding of the targeted biogeochemical cycles. Land use, rather than plant species, promotes alterations in microbial gene abundances and processes. During the survey period, forest exhibited higher microbial activity, resulting in higher nitrate availability and N2O emissions. These processes were correlated with higher abundances of process related genes. Nitrate and N2O emissions were lower in agricultural and pasture soils. CO2 emission was higher in the two-year-old soybean plot. The forest and two-year-old soybean plots acted as a sink for CH4, while the pasture plots represented a source of it. The results validated the use of gene abundance determination as a valuable tool to better understand C, N, and GHG processes. The genes nirK, nosZ, and 16S rRNA presented the best correlations with the processes. A larger temporal and spatial analysis is needed to infer statements on the processes dynamics due to land use change. For the first time gene abundance measurements were used to integrate the C, N and GHG cycles, giving insights into land use changes in Southwestern Amazon / Sustentabilidade é um dos maiores objetivos da humanidade no novo milênio. Uma demanda crescente por produtos agrícolas tem estimulado a expansão agrícola no Brasil, especialmente no Sudoeste da Amazônia, nos biomas Cerrado e Amazônia. Um melhor entendimento dos ciclos biogeoquímicos e suas influências em sistemas naturais e agrícolas é chave para se alcançar sustentabilidade ambiental e aumentar eficiência agrícola. Esses ciclos biogeoquímicos são guiados por microrganismos, e o objetivo dessa tese foi correlacionar abundância de grupos funcionais de microrganismos com carbono, nitrogênio e gases de efeito estufa (GEE) em resposta a mudança do uso da terra em solos do sudoeste da Amazônia. Esse trabalho foi realizado na Universidade de São Paulo e na Universidade de Massachusetts Amherst enquanto o doutorando esteve matriculado nas duas universidades. A tese é composta de cinco estudos. O primeiro estudo mostra que a mudança no uso da terra de Cerrado e floresta para agricultura (soja, Glycine max (L. Merrill), em sucessão com outros cultivos) ou pastagem (Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) não reduz diversidade microbiana, mas muda sua estrutura. O segundo estudo descreve as alterações nos estoques de C, N, parâmetros químicos e microbiológicos da conversão de Cerrado para agricultura e pastagem. No terceiro e no quarto estudos, microcosmos foram usados para avaliar a influência de soja e braquiária na microbiota dos solos. Genes chaves dos processos biogeoquímicos (amoA, nirK, nirS, norB, nosZ, mcrA, e pmoA) foram quantificados e correlacionados com C, N e GEE. No quinto estudo, coletas in situ de solo e gases foram usadss para caracterizar a mudança do uso da terra de floresta para pastagem (braquiária, 25 anos) e para agricultura (soja, segundo ano, e soja, 25 anos, em sucessão com outras culturas). Correlações entre genes e processos foram encontradas, indicando que abundância gênica fornece importantes informações para o entendimento dos ciclos biogeoquímicos. Mudança no uso da terra como um todo, mais do que a mudança de vegetação, promove as alterações na abundância gênica e processos do solo. Durante o período de coleta, floresta exibiu maior atividade microbiana, resultando em maior disponibilidade de nitrato e emissão de N2O. Esses processos correlacionam com maior abundância dos genes relacionados aos processos. Quantidades de nitrato e N2O foram menores em agricultura e pastagem. As emissões de CO2 foram maiores na área de soja de segundo ano. Os solos de floresta e soja de segundo ano se mostraram como drenos de metano, enquanto que a pastagem foi uma fonte de emissão. Os resultados validam o uso de abundância gênica como uma técnica valiosa para um melhor entendimento dos ciclos do C, N e GEE. Os genes nirK, nosZ, e 16S rRNA apresentaram as melhores correlações com os processos. Uma análise temporal e espacial mais abrangente é necessária para generalizações sobre a dinâmica dos processos na região estudada. Pela primeira vez abundância gênica foi usada para integrar os ciclos do C, N e GEE, colaborando para um melhor entendimento dos processos relacionados à mudança no uso da terra no sudoeste da Amazônia

L’objectif principal de cette thèse est d’instruire l’organisation des successions culturales, à l’échelle de la France et sur un recul décennal, tant en terme de cinétiques localisées qu’en terme de dynamiques liées à des variables explicatives du milieu physique et socio-technico-économiques. Ce travail de « fouille de données » est appliqué en France métropolitaine, en utilisant les bases de données publiques disponibles. Notre étude couvre la période 1992-2003 où s’implémenta la réforme de 1992 de la Politique Agricole Commune européenne et l’agenda 2000 en France. A partir d’une fouille de données sur l’ensemble des points Terruti sur cette période, 2549 successions culturales de trois ans furent identifiées. Ensuite, 21 clusters de l’ensemble des 430 régions agricoles (RA) françaises, quatre systèmes de culture, 90 RA, parangons des 430 RA, et trois régions principales appartenant à cinq des 21 clusters, regroupant les cultures de céréales, oléagineux et protéagineux, ont été définis. Deux approches de cinétiques des successions ont été réalisées : Une étude envisageant les successions de culture qui suivent les retournements de prairies permanentes. Une recherche des dynamiques d’évolution de successions culturales en lien avec des conditions externes. Nous proposons une utilisation ultérieure des méthodes mobilisées qui ont montré leur capacité à cartographier les grandes tendances d’évolution en France et à identifier les principales variables explicatives de ces évolutions. Les apports de cette thèse contribuent à améliorer notre compréhension des processus qui organisent les successions culturales en France et construisent par ces pratiques agricoles très dynamiques des impacts forts sur le territoire agricole français / In the context of changing agricultural policy, the development of agricultural production systems, increasing concern for agricultural sustainability and shifts in agricultural land management practice-related land-use change, the main objective of this thesis was to mine crop sequence patterns (CSP) and the relationships between CSP and the biophysical and socio-technical-economic conditions in mainland France from historical census data (e.g. land-cover survey, agricultural censuses, population census). Our study period 1992-2003 covers the implementation period of the 1992 European Union Common Agricultural Policy reform and Agenda 2000 in France. Both the classical statistical and data mining technique were applied in alone or combined ways in this thesis. First, we proposed an innovative approach to representing CSP within a given area and period at a large regional scale in a stationary way. The 2549 3-year crop sequences (CSs) were first identified as major CSs within all 430 agricultural districts (ADs) in mainland France during this period. Next, 21 clusters of ADs , four types of cropping systems, 90 representative ADs and three principal planting zones of cereals, oilseeds, and protein crops belonging to five clusters identified previously were further defined. We then explored CSP in a dynamic way by investigating CSP after grassland-to-cropland conversion, the temporal variability of CSP, and the evolution of the relationships between CSP and the external conditions over the study period. We conclude that the approaches developed here permit the representation of CSP at the large regional scale in both stationary and dynamic ways using time series land-cover data denoting specific agricultural cover types. The findings of this thesis contribute to improving the understanding of the process and pattern of human land management practices by agriculture affecting the terrestrial biosphere