Allan Waters, a communal area near Queenstown in the former Ciskei of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, have about 80 households who are involved in agriculture. These households were surveyed with two questionnaires. The first was at household level, focusing on the current socioeconomic situations and farming systems. Data were collected from sixty-three households in the village. The socio-economics questionnaire was divided into sections: demographic information, land and agricultural information, income and expenditure. In order to improve the livelihood of the households and to secure food production and food security, a situation analysis of the rural farmers was carried out using typology as a research tool. Typologies were built in order to analyze the diversity of production units (farms) or households (agricultural households). To define household typologies, factors such as land, source of income, modes of farming and composition of the family were used to identify six typology categories and to divide these into two main groups. The two main groups comprised of (a) livestock farming and (b) non-livestock farming or very little farming activities. The six types are as follows: Type 1: Poverty-stricken households Type 2: Newly arrived households Type 3: Households’ depending on old age pensions Type 4: Households’ main income from old age pensions and supported by substantial farming Type 5: Households’ revenue generated from business, wages and farming Type 6: Full time farming Five types had access to grazing and arable land for agricultural purposes, but type two had not yet been granted the rights to graze or the use of arable fields for agricultural purposes by the village. The source of income for the households in type one was made up of welfare grants and remittances. Types three and four, mainly depended on pensions when compared to the other four types. The households in type five mainly received incomes from farming and business. In type six, the main income received was from farming. The most common modes of farming for the types were: garden-poultry- dry land- crop- cattle-sheep-goats. Using the data from the first questionnaire, the three active agricultural types were targeted with a production survey (28 households). The production survey revolved around animal production, but a number of questions had to do with general information concerning agriculture. From the survey, the households reported that the main aim for keeping livestock and chickens was self- consumption and sale of animals, except in the case of sheep, which were kept for wool production. In the case of the wool farmers, the committee controlled activities such as mating of animals, grazing management, shearing, dipping of animals and wool sorting. The other tasks were left to the farmer himself. Wool data obtained for 2001 indicated that the average fleece weight was 3.88 kg greasy wool per sheep, with an A- to C- length. The fibre diametre of the wool in general fell in a medium class (21.1 micron). From the survey a number of projects were identified to assist the rural farmers in improving the livelihood of the households and in securing food production and food security.

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the Master of Technology Degree in Information Technology, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2014. / This dissertation reports on the original study that applies the differential evolution algorithm to support farmers with optimal strategic decision making in the crop planning system. The analysis and modelling of crop planning decision making process are attractive for producing formalized knowledge on cropping plans and choices of farmers under uncertainty. The formalization of the decision making process is generally becoming a crucial focal point for developing decision support systems that go beyond the limitation of formerly developed prescriptive approaches. This dissertation makes a distinctive contribution to the development of a formalized methodology to study the decision making process in crop farming systems. The research reported in this dissertation formulates crop-mix planning problems by concurrently maximizing net profit and crop production, while minimizing the total land in hectare used to determine optimal cropping patterns. Different optimal crop-mix problems formulated in this research were solved using a mathematical methodology of generalized differential evolution 3 algorithm to obtain globally optimal solutions. The methodology of this research strikes a balance between mathematical formulations of crop planning problems and effective implementation of crop planning decision models. Simulation experiments were conducted using the non-dominated sorted genetic algorithm II to validate the performance of the generalized differential evolution 3 algorithm for solving optimal crop planning problems. The empirical results of this study generally indicate that generalized differential evolution 3 algorithm is a viable alternative for optimal crop-mix planning decision. Based on the performance of the generalized differential evolution 3 algorithm, the design of a decision support system was realized which promises to assist farmers and decision-makers within the agricultural sector to make optimal decisions pertaining to crop planning.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The agriculture sector continues to be viewed as a vehicle through which economic growth and development can be achieved; particularly for developing economies. This view is incorporated in South Africa’s rural development framework in the National Development Plan, which indicated that this sector will be the main driver in developing the country’s rural economies. However, the South African agricultural sector is known to be dualistic; consisting of a large-scale commercial and a small-scale subsistence sector. This study is particularly focused on smallholder farming in South Africa, which have developed as a result of the decades of government intervention that have guided reform driven by the general political and economic philosophy of white domination. The most notable interventions, which drew the line between white and black landholding, were the Natives’ Land Acts of 1913 and 1936, followed by various policy interventions to support White, large-scale agriculture. The question remains whether or not an expanded smallholder sector can significantly contribute to rural development, employment creation and poverty reduction in the former homeland areas of South Africa. In order to answer this question, the need arises for reliable data on smallholder farming, conceptual clarification on definitions of “smallholder” or “small-scale” farmers and diversity among farming systems needs to be taken into account. These considerations are crucial in order to design and implement effective rural development policies. One way of addressing this question is the use of farm typologies. Given the diversity that exists within agricultural systems, various schemes of classification have been developed and evolved over time. The objective of this study is to provide an empirical framework that would classify smallholder farmers in the former homeland areas of South Africa according to their livelihood strategies. This study seeks to achieve the objective in three distinct ways. Firstly, by giving a broad overview of the smallholder sector in South Africa. Secondly, by utilizing Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques to identify farming households situated in the former homeland areas, using the General Household Survey (GHS) and the Income and Expenditure Survey (IES). Thirdly, apply multivariate statistical techniques, specifically Principle Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis (CA), to develop the ultimate classification system. The results from both typologies suggested eight distinct types or groups of farming households in the former homeland areas. Important findings suggest that higher salary incomes are crucial for the enablement of households to market their produce. Social grants were found to be key in determining livelihood strategies among faming households, most notably old age and child support grants. One of the groups that were identified was typically food insecure, with their agricultural production not sufficiently feeding the household. Lastly, direct agricultural support from the government was clearly focused on livestock services which placed a minority of households at a distinct advantage to sell produce to the market. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die landbousektor word algemeen gesien as een van die moontlike drywers vir ekonomiese groei en landelike ontwikkeling, spesifiek in ontwikkelende lande. Hierdie siening word ook uitgesonder deur die Suid-Afrikaanse ontwikkelingsraamwerk, en by name in die Nasionale Ontwikkelingsplan wat aandui dat die landbousektor die hoofrol behoort te vervul om landelike gebiede te ontwikkel. Die vermoë om hierdie mandaat uit te voer moet in die konteks van die kenmerkende dualisme raakgesien word. Suid-Afrika het hoofsaaklik twee tipes boere; grootskaalse kommersiële boere en kleinskaalse, meestal bestaansboere, wat meestal in die voormalige tuislande opereer. Hierdie dualisme is die resultaat van verskeie regeringsinmengings, hoofsaaklik gedryf deur die algemene politieke bestel, ideologie en beleid wat op rasseklassifikasie gegrond was gedurende die vorige eeu. Sekerlik een van die mees bekende was die Naturellegrond Wet van 1913 en 1936, wat die skeidingslyn tussen swart en wit grondbesit ingestel het. Verder is verskeie wetgewings implimenteer om die kommersiële landbousektor te bevoordeel gedurende hierdie tydperk.. In hierdie konteks is dit belangrik om te vra of die uitbreiding van die kleinskaalse landbousektor werklik kan bydra tot landelike ontwikkeling, werkskepping en armoedeverligting in die voormalige tuislande van Suid-Afrika. Om hierdie vraag te beantwoord word betroubare inligting benodig, moet die konsep van “kleinskaalse boere” uitgeklaar word en laastens moet diversiteit tussen verskillende boerderystelsels in ag geneem word. Die antwoorde op hierdie vrae is noodsaaklik vir die ontwikkeling en implimentering van effektiewe landelike ontwikkelingsbeleid. Die gebruik van boerderytipologieë is ‘n oplossing om hierdie kwessies aan te spreek. Verskeie klassifikasiesisteme is in die verlede ontwikkel om die diversiteit in boerderystelsels te ondersoek. Die hoof doel van hierdie studie is om ‘n empiriese raamwerk te ontwikkel om kleinskaalse boerderye, wat in die voormalige tuislande voorkom, volgens hul lewensbestaanstrategieë te klassifiseer. Om hierdie doelwit te bereik, sal die studie eerstens ‘n oorsig gee van die kleinskaalse landbousektor in Suid-Afrika. Tweedens sal Geografiese Inligtingstelsels (GIS) tegnieke gebruik word om spesifiek huishoudings in die voormalige tuislande te indentifiseer in die Algemene Huishoudings Opname (AHO) en die Inkomste en Uitgawes Opname (IUO). Derdens sal meerveranderlike statistieke gebruik word, spesifiek Hoofkomponentanalise (HKA) en Bondelontleding (BO), om die klassifikasiesisteem te ontwikkel. Die resultate van die tipologieë wat in hierdie studie ontwikkel is gee agt spesifieke groepe van boerderyhuishoudings. Hierdie groepe was beduidend verskillend van mekaar en elkeen se lewenbestaanstrategieë word uitgewys. Die hoofbevindings dui aan dat addisionele salarisinkomste ‘n belangrike rol speel in die vermoë van kleinskaalse boere om hul produkte te verkoop. Verder is dit opmerklik dat maatskaplike toelaes ‘n aansienlike rol gespeel het in die vorming van die groepe, spesifiek wat betref ouderdomspensioene en kindertoelae. Daar is ook ‘n spesifieke groep huishoudings in beide tipologieë wat probleme ondervind om voedselsekuriteit op huishoudelike vlak te handhaaf. Laastens wys die studie dat direkte landbou-ondersteuning teenoor kleinskaalse boere ‘n kenmerkende fokus op lewendehaweboerderye plaas wat sulke boerderye bevoordeel het om vir die mark te produseer.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The objective of this study was to consider whether smallholders operate within homogenous or differentiated farming systems i.e. a similar “‘one type”’ system or a system that could be described as a smallholder typology consisting of a number of farming types. The enquiry firstly described and analysed farm diversity and then developed risk attitude profiles of smallholder farmers in the Stellenbosch local municipal area in the Western Cape province of South Africa. The problem statements, directing this study is that there is a general misconception that smallholders are all “‘the same’” and that they all operate within one ‘“representative farming model”’; and that the majority of smallholders are risk averse. These views also argue that all smallholder farmers are not primarily directed at profit objectives, but that social considerations are most relevant and that different social orientations are shaping farming systems. These views are investigated in this study and the hypotheses directing this analysis is that smallholders in the study area are not a homogenous group; rather types within a broader farming typology, with different orientations and objectives and with different risk attitude profiles. The study originated as part of an international collaborative investigation – the South African Agrarian Diagnoses project, a joint research project of the Agro Paris Tech/Agence Francaise de Development, the Standard Bank Centre for Agribusiness Development and Leadership, Stellenbosch University and the University of Pretoria in to farmer diversity and farmer typologies in South Africa. This investigation looked at smallholder farming in different agrogeographical areas in South Africa, with this particular study focussing on potential smallholder farmer diversity in the Stellenbosch local municipal area. The Stellenbosch local municipality and Western Cape Department of Agriculture provided logistical support, information to this investigation and participated in focus group sessions. Smallholder activity in this study was defined to include both small scale farming activities and the mobilisation of smallholders/farm workers in so-called ‘“farm worker equity schemes’” – a type not included in the other regions. Data was collected from eight smallholders’ farming communities and the four different farm workers’ equity share schemes through surveys and interviews. The following towns and hamlets: Franschhoek, Kylemore, Lanquedoc (Herbal View and Spier Corridor), Pniel, Jamestown, Raithby, Lynedoch and Koelenhof; and four farm workers’ equity share schemes were: Swartrivier vineyard project, Koopmanskloof vineyard project, Enaleni Trust and Poker Hill vineyard project. Personal interviews and focus group discussions were conducted and cluster analysis was used for the diversity (typology) analysis and the Likert scale was employed to measure risk attitude profiles. A non-probability sampling approach was used to select a sample size of 49 respondents. The reason for using non-probability sampling technique was that when one wants to do the diversity analysis, one must try to include many respondents in the sample and the farmers that are included must be representative of the population from which they are selected. The variables selected as determinants of farm diversity included information about: demographics and households, land ownership and occupation, farming activities, farming objectives, agricultural inputs, labour, equipment, farming constraints, access to markets, financial support services, educational and training services, extension services and reasons for quitting farming activities. From this, different farming types and typologies were identified, described and structured. Preference indications for different risk management strategies were then used to measure and describe the risk attitudes of different types of smallholder farmers using the Likert risk attitudinal scale. The results and findings confirmed the study hypotheses relating to diversity in smallholder farming in the target area, namely that smallholders in this geographical area are not a homogenous group and rejects the stated hypotheses that most smallholder farmers are risk averse. A Stellenbosch smallholder typology, with six different farming types were established viz: type 1 – farmland-occupying but non-farming households (10.2% of the sample), type 2 – pensioner – livestock farmers (16.3% of the sample), type 3 – part-time cattle farmers (14.3% of the sample), type 4 – commercial equity share farmers (16.3% of the sample), type 5 – retirement planning crop producers (20.4% of the sample), and type 6 – commercial crop producers (22.5% of the sample). With regard to risk profiles, risk attitudes varied between these types and also within each type, hence risk attitudes for smallholders are also not found to be similar. The results revealed that those smallholder farmers moving on a development path towards commercial agriculture (types 4, 5 and 6) were risk preferring; less commercially orientated farm types (types 1, 2 and 3), showed risk averse and risk neutral orientations. The risk profile percentages of farmers interviewed were 43.2%, 34.1% and 22.7%, respectively for risk preferring, risk neutral and risk averse; this finding rejects the stated hypotheses. From these results, a number of issues, relevant to development support programmes, were proposed for further agricultural economic research. The most important of these are related to: appropriate development support strategies related to farm types and the potential development paths for each type; and the structuring of appropriate ‘“risk management instruments”’ for each type, in particular to support smallholder farmers; with a development trajectory towards commercial farming, i.e. to support emerging commercial farmers – an important category of farming listed in current government policy and in the National Development Plan. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doelwit van hierdie studie was om ondersoek in te stel na die tipe kleinboere-stelsel (smallholder farming systems) wat voorkom in die Stellenbosch munisipale gebied in die WesKaap provinsie van Suid Afrika en die eenvormigheid al dan nie daarvan te ontleed. Eerstens is plaasdiversiteit ondersoek en ontleed; en daarna die risikohoudings van sondagie kleinboere. Die ontledings is dan gebruik om uitspraak te gee oor die eenvormigheid of diversiteit van kleinboerestelsels in die geogafiese gebied. Die probleemstelling wat hierdie studie gerig het, was dat daar ’n algehele wanbegrip mag bestaan dat kleinboere almal “dieselfde” is, of binne n ‘“eenvormige verteenwoordigende boerderymodel”’ funksioneer; en dat, gekoppel hieraan, die meerderheid kleinboere risikoafkerig is. Hierdie sienings hou ook voor dat alle kleinboere nie noodwendig op winsdoelwitte fokus nie, maar dat maatskaplike oorwegings ook relevant is en dat verskillende oriëntasies boerderystelsels vorm. Hierdie sienings word in hierdie studie ondersoek en die hipotese wat die analise rig, is dat die kleinboere in die studie nie ’n eenvormige of homogene groep is nie, eerder verskillende soorte/tipes kleinboere met verskillende oriëntasies en doelwitte en dus ook met verskillende risikohoudings. Die studie het sy oorsprong as deel van ’n internasionale samewerkende ondersoek – die South African Agrarian Diagnoses-projek van die Agro Paris Tech/Agence Francaise de Development, die Standard Bank Sentrum vir Agribesigheidsontwikkeling en Leierskap, Universiteit van Stellenbosch endie Universiteit van Pretoria oor die diversiteit en tipologieë van kleinboere in Suid Afrika. Hierdie ondersoek het gekyk na verskillende agro-geologiese gebiede in SuidAfrika, met hierdie studie wat gefokus het op die potensiële diversiteit van boere in die Stellenbosse plaaslike munisipale gebied. Die Stellenbosche Munisipaliteit en Departement van Landbou in die Wes Kaap het ondersteunend gestaan met logistiek en deelname aan fokusgroep gesprekke. Kleinboeraktiwiteit in hierdie studie is gedefinieer om beide kleinskaalse boerderyaktiwiteite op klein grond persele, as ook die mobilisering van kleinboere/plaaswerkers in sogenaamde gedeelde boerdery - eienaarskapskemas in te sluit – n unieke tipe wat nie in die ander streke ondersoek is nie.. Data is vanuit agt kleinboergemeenskappe en die vier verskillende gedeelde eienaarskapskemas vir plaaswerkers deur middel van opnames en onderhoude bekom. Die boerderygemeenskappe was in die volgende dorpe en klein dorpies gevestig: Franschhoek, Kylemore, Lanquedoc (Herbal View en Spier Corridor), Pniel, Jamestown, Raithby, Lynedoch en Koelenhof; en die vier gedeelde eienaarskapskemas vir plaaswerkers was: die Swartrivier wingerdprojek, die Koopmanskloof wingerdprojek, Enaleni Trust en die Poker Hill wingerdprojek. Persoonlike onderhoude en fokusgroepbesprekings is gehou en cluster analise is gebruik vir die diversiteit (tipologie) analise en die Likertskaal is gebruik risiko houding profiele te meet. 'N niewaarskynlikheidsteekproefneming benadering is gebruik om 'n steekproefgrootte van 49 respondente te kies. Die rede vir die gebruik van nie-waarskynlikheidsteekproefneming tegniek was dat wanneer 'n mens die diversiteit ontleding te doen, moet 'n mens probeer om soveel respondente in die monster en die boere wat ingesluit is, moet verteenwoordigend van die bevolking waaruit hulle gekies word om te sluit. Onderhoude is gedoen met sulke kleinboere en trosanalise is gebruik vir die analise van diversiteit (tipologie), en die Likert-skaal is gebruik om risikohoudingsprofiele te meet. Die veranderlikes wat as determinante van plaasdiversiteit gekies is, het inligting oor demografie en huishoudings, grondeienaarskap en -besetting, boerderyaktiwiteite, boerderydoelwitte, landboukundige insette, arbeid, toerusting, boerderybeperkings, marktoegang, finansiële ondersteuningsdienste, opvoedkundige en opleidingsdienste, uitbreidingsdienste en redes hoekom boerdery laat vaar is, ingesluit. Hieruit is verskillende boerderytipes geïdentifiseer en gekonstrueer. Voorkeure opsies vir verskillende risikobestuurstrategieë is gebruik om die risikohoudings van die deur middel van die Likert risikohoudingskaal te meet. Die resultate van hierdie studie het die hipotese oor die aanwesigheid van diversiteit bevestig, naamlik dat kleinboere in hierdie geografiese gebied nie ’n homogene groep is nie n verwerp die gestelde hipoteses dat die meeste kleinboere is risiko-sku. ’n Stellenbosch-tipologie, bestaande uit ses verskillende boerderytipes, is vasgestel: tipe 1 – huishoudings wat nie boer nie maar wat op landbougrond woon (10.2% van die monster), tipe 2 – pensioenaris-veeboere (16.3% van die monster), tipe 3 – deeltydse veeboere (14.3% van die monster), tipe 4 – kommersiële gedeelde eienaarskapskema boere (16.3% van die monster), tipe 5 – gewasprodusente wat aftrede beplan (20.4% van die monster), en tipe 6 – kommersiële gewasprodusente (22.5% van die monster). Met betrekking tot risikoprofiele het risikohoudings tussen die tipes en ook binne elke tipe gewissel, dus is die risikohoudings van kleinboere ook nie gevind om dieselfde te wees nie. Die resultate toon dat kleinboere wat in die rigting van kommersiële landbou beweeg (tipes 4, 5 en 6) risiko-voorkeurend is; daarenteen het minder kommersieel gerigte plaastipes (tipes 1, 2 en 3)risiko-afkerige en risiko-neutrale instellings getoon. In die geheel was die persentasies 43,2%, 34.1% en 22.7% vir risiko-voorkeurend, risiko-neutraal en risiko-afkerig onderskeidelik, wat ook die diversiteitshipotese ondersteun. Vanuit hierdie bevindings word ’n aantal kwessies wat relevant is vir ontwikkelingsondersteuningsprogramme vir kleinboere op verskillende ontwikkelingstrajekte, voorgestel vie verder elandbou ekonomiese navorsing. Die belangrikste hiervan hou verband met die aangewese ontwikkelingstrajekte per kleinboer tipe en daarmeegepaardgaande gepaste “risikobestuurinstrumente” – veral vir die ondersteuning van kleinboere met ’n ontwikkelingstrajek na kommersiële boerdery, m.a.w. opkomende kommersiële boere – ’n belangrike boerderykategorie wat in huidige regeringsbeleid en in die Nasionale Ontwikkelingsplan geprioritiseer word.

ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Agricultural production takes place in an uncertain and complex environment, with production the result of the culmination of a variety of factors within a greater system. Consequently, accounting for the influence of variables in the production system is very difficult, making it a daunting task for decision makers to make good decisions. In the wine grape production context, this problem is accentuated due to the capital intensive and perennial nature of investments, also giving rise to a path dependency. As a result it is essential to make strategically sound decisions in order to ensure the long-term profitability and financial feasibility of wine grape production. Decision making tools, like a model, can be of invaluable support for strategic decision making. A model is used to simplify reality, by imitating and simulating the actual system as closely as possible. A simulation model was therefore developed for this thesis to be able to evaluate the long-term financial impact of different wine grape production systems and to support strategic decision making. This model can be adapted to individual farm specific features, scenarios and preferences, in the evaluation and analysis of different investment and wine grape production system decisions. For this study, the nature of agricultural systems as well as qualities required by a simulation model, were investigated. The former is followed by an investigation of the effect of the grapevine and trellis specific qualities on the possibilities of the production system, as well as the implication of capital budgeting and financing considerations on the performance of the wine grape production system. In view of the above, the model was then applied to simulate and evaluate different wine grape production systems as well as a structural transition and expansion of wine grape production, for a simulated farm in the Breedekloof region, South Africa. The model can be used for decision making and scenario planning purposes by wine grape producers and stakeholders in the wine industry. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Landbouproduksie vind plaas in ‘n komplekse omgewing met talle onsekerhede, waar produksie die resultaat is van ‘n aantal faktore binne ‘n groter geheel. Die uitdaging is dus om die spesifieke invloed van veranderlikes binne die produksiestelsel waar te neem sodat besluitnemers ingeligte besluite op grond daarvan kan maak. In die verbouing van langtermyn gewasse, spesifiek die van wyndruif verbouing, word hierdie probleem beklemtoon vanweë die kapitaal intensiewe en meerjarige aard van investerings, wat aanleiding gee tot die afhanklikheid van vorige besluite. Ten einde die langtermyn winsgewendheid en lewensvatbaarheid van wyndruif produksie te verseker, is strategiese en ingeligte besluite deurslaggewend. Hulpmiddels in die besluitnemingsproses, soos modelle, kan onskatbare ondersteuning bied in hierdie konteks. Die doel van ‘n model is om ‘n werklike stelsel te weerspieël, maar terselfdertyd word vereenvoudigende aannames gemaak. Vir die doeleindes van hierdie tesis is ‘n simulasie model ontwikkel om die langtermyn finansiële impak van verskillende wyndruif produksiestelsels te weerspieël en strategiese besluitneming te bevorder. Hierdie model kan aangepas word vir die individuele vereistes, voorkeure en kenmerke van individuele plase, ten einde verskillende investeringsbesluite en wyndruifproduksiestelsels te evalueer. Vir die doeleindes van hierdie studie is die aard van die stelsel waarin landbouproduksie plaasvind, asook eienskappe wat benodig word deur ‘n simulasiemodel, om ‘n goeie weerspieëling van die werklikheid te kan gee ondersoek. Daarna is die invloed van die prieëlstelsel oorweging op die wingerdstok, die uitvoerbaarheid van verskillende bewerkingspraktyke, asook die invloed van kapitaal- en finansiëringsoorwegings op die prestasie van die wyndruifproduksiestelsel ondersoek. In die lig van bogenoemde oorwegings is die model gebruik om verskillende wyndruifproduksiestelsels te simuleer en te evalueer, asook om ‘n strukturele oorgang en uitbreiding vir ‘n plaas in die Breedekloofstreek in Suid-Afrika te ondersoek. Wyndruif produsente en belanghebbendes in die wynbedryf kan hierdie model in scenario beplanning en besluitneming gebruik.

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been widely researched as a mechanism for improving the socio-economic status of disadvantaged, rural communities. In order to do this numerous technology-based initiatives have been introduced into disadvantaged, rural communities to assist them in various aspects of their lives. Unfortunately, even when the proposed benefit of a particular technology is clearly evident to its initiators, the adoption by the target users is often uncertain. This has also been the case with e-commerce in agriculture. Despite the numerous benefits of e-commerce for agricultural producers, the uptake has been low. Trust is a critical pre-condition for the adoption of e-marketplaces. E-marketplaces expose consumers to the risk of non-delivery or misrepresentation of goods ordered and the misuse of personal information by external parties. Additionally, the time investment needed to make a shift to e-marketplaces and the opinions of important reference groups affects the user’s willingness to trust and depend on an e-marketplace. This study was undertaken to assess the extent to which rural users with limited ICT experience would trust and, consequently, adopt an e-marketplace to support agricultural trade. A pragmatic philosophy was adopted in this study, indicating that the researcher’s view of reality is founded on the practical implications and outcomes that are observed. This study used a Canonical Action Research strategy to design, develop and deploy a voice based e-marketplace to assist the trading activities of a Western Cape based aloe community. The community was allowed to utilise thee-marketplace over a period of eight weeks. Thereafter, interviews were held with the participants to investigate their perceptions of the technology. As a result, a model proposing the factors that must be in place for trust to be achieved in a voice based e-marketplace was proposed. The study found that the trustworthiness of a technology results from the technology’s technical capability to satisfy the needs of its users reliably. Usability and security were found to be important determinants of the trustworthiness of a technology. Furthermore, the requirements elicitation process was found to be central to achieving trust as it defines the necessary criteria for developing secure, usable, functional, and reliable technologies that meet the needs of their users.

South Africa (SA) is food secure on a national level, however citizens in rural and marginalised areas face household food insecurity due to lack of access to this food. South Africa has low fertility soils and scarce water resources. Climate change reports of unpredictable weather conditions will further exacerbate these challenges. The majority of the agricultural production methods in SA are industrialised and rely heavily on external inputs. Alternative agricultural production methods which are environmentally less taxing, are affordable and yield nutritious food, need to be investigated and adopted. A long-term trial investigating the differences in yields between conventional and organic farming systems was established at the NMMU George Saasveld campus. A baseline study preceded the cropping seasons to establish pre-treatment soil conditions before the two farming systems were be implemented. The trial was a randomized complete block design split into organic, conventional and control plots. In the first cropping season (summer) three crops cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas) and cowpea (vigna ungucuilata) were planted under the different treatments. Soil fertility changes after application of chemical and organic fertilizer were measured. Soil pH and phosphorus increased whilst potassium and soil carbon decreased from baseline levels. The organic plots were found to have higher soil pH, potassium and carbon, whilst P was higher in the conventional plots. The organic cabbages had a yield 12% lower than conventional cabbages, organic cowpeas were 51% lower than conventional cowpeas. Baboons damaged sweet potato plots before maturity. Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica), radish (Raphanus sativa) and green pea (Pisum sativum) were planted in the second cropping season (winter). Organic broccoli yields were 51% lower than conventional broccoli, organic green peas were 18 % lower than conventional green peas. The organic radish yields were 36% lower than conventional yields and this was statically significant. The yield differences were statically significant between control and conventional cabbages (25%) and broccolis (68%). The results indicate that there is on average an initial 25% yield difference between organic and conventional farming systems. Similar studies have shown that the yield gap can be reduced within three to four years. This study presents preliminary results of trials that are to continue for ten years, during which time the yield differences may vary.

Previous studies conducted in the study area recommended an irrigation scheme as a much desired intervention in order to reduce poverty levels, reduce unemployment, provide a livelihood for the households and trigger development. The Land Bank of South Africa has shown keen interest to provide funds to set up an irrigation scheme in Guquka. Absence of peoples’ involvement and farmer participation has been identified as one of the causes of poor performance of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa. The poor performance of smallholder irrigation projects in South Africa provided a good basis for exploring factors that could possibly affect farmer participation and the success of the proposed irrigation scheme. This knowledge would be useful to providers of extension services, capital providers, policy makers and the recipients of the proposed irrigation scheme. The main objective of this study was to investigate the factors affecting the willingness of farming households to participate in the proposed irrigation scheme. This investigation helped to analyse demographic; socio economic situation; farming practices; economic activities; water sources, uses and management in the study area. The major tool of enquiry in this study was the questionnaire which was used to collect data from the households. Household and farm characteristics were collected using structured questionnaires with the help of locally recruited and trained enumerators. The data used for the empirical analysis was obtained from a survey of 50 farming households in Guquka, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The following variables were selected to determine the scope of their influence on farmer willingness to participate in the proposed scheme: age; membership in local group; investment in agriculture, educational level of the farmers, knowledge, household size, labour and gender. A logit model was used to determine the extent to which these selected characteristics influence the willingness of farmers to participate in the proposed irrigation scheme. The results showed that willingness to participate in the scheme was significantly influenced by the afore mentioned variables as well as knowledge about the planned irrigation scheme which is mainly provided by extension agents; and total household income. Age was found to decrease the willingness of farmers to participate in irrigation. A positive association existed between participation and the following variables; membership in local group, investment in agriculture, educational level of the farmers and knowledge. On the other hand, household size, labour and gender were not significant variables affecting willingness to participate in the proposed irrigation scheme. Based on the results from the logit regression model, it can be concluded that membership in a local group, investment in agriculture, education, knowledge and total household income are responsible for increasing the probability of participation. The negative relationship on age and participation indicates that the older the person is, the lesser the chances of participation. It is recommended that stakeholders should improve access to education and farmer training programmes. Support systems to disseminate information, training and knowledge should be enhanced. Improving institutional support and access to financial services should be prioritised by the stakeholders in the study area. Further studies on building institutional capacity and a cost benefit analysis of irrigation options in the study area are recommended.

South Africa and the rest of developing countries are faced with poverty and poor rural development. Rural participation in agricultural activities is one of the components that can be used to address the poverty challenge facing the people residing in rural areas. The broad objective of this research is to determine factors affecting participation rate in farming in the rural areas of Amathole District Municipality of Eastern Cape. In this study stratified random sampling method was applied in order to choose a sample out of 30 households that were interviewed 13 people belonged to Participants and 17 people belonged to non-Participants. The results from this study show that women participate a lot in farming activities. The multiple regression model was used to test the participation rates of the people in Amathole region specifically Phumlani area. A number of variables were considered in this study to assess the impact of different variables on participation in farming activities. The results showed that about 57% of the respondents are not participating in farming while 43% of the respondents participate. The farming participants that were interviewed all claim that there is a lack in farming support in the area. When there is no support of any kind, rural people would not be motivated to start development projects on their own. Consequently, this lack of farming support in the Phumlani area may have an influence on the number of farming participants. Therefore, the lack of support in the area may serve as a motivation for non-participants not to be influenced to farm. Rural farming needs to be promoted amongst the youth so as to protect and sustain agricultural growth in rural areas. The study has discovered that the youth of Phumlani is not actively involved in farming activities. Government can provide community members with farming resources so as to promote farming in the area. It would be wiser for the government to provide physical farming resources and implements rather than cash grants.

MENVSC / Department of Ecology and Resource Management