A study was conducted to establish whether farmers are changing land use from growing food crops for human consumption to biofuel production to an extent that could significantly affect food security. Following concerns in the recent years about the excessive global demand for fossil fuel that drove prices to very high levels, biofuel alternatives derived mainly from agricultural food crops such as soybean, maize and sugarcane are being pursued in many countries. This study targeted a sample emerging farmers in the Northern Agricultural Region, one of the four administrative areas for agricultural extension services in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. Biophysical suitability for change from maize food crop to soybean for biofuel land use was assessed using the locally developed Bio-resource spatial database. A sample of 11 emerging farmers was interviewed regarding land use change of food to biofuel production, farming operations, inputs and yields. Emerging farmers are black African farmers who were previously deprived of land and institutional support in developing into commercial farmers, but who are now recipients of land as well as financial and technical agricultural support services. This group of farmers arguably comes from vulnerable communities who depend on food crops for subsistence and who could influence change in land use with food security implications in their communities. Further information was obtained from an agricultural consultant regarding 7 commercial farms producing soybean biofuel. The study revealed that the Northern Agricultural Region had adequate suitability for profitable soybean production for biofuel. Furthermore, the majority of farmers interviewed had changed from maize production for human consumption to soybean production for biofuel. All the farmers interviewed applied farming operations with modern technology including land preparation and planting, fertilisation, irrigation, crop protection and harvesting. The majority interviewed farmers reported varied total earnings from soybean derived biofuel ranging from R 50, 000 to R 500, 000. The variability in earnings is consistent with the varied range of ages as attributable to experience and with the varied levels of education which may be related to management skills. Although the sample of farmers interviewed was too small to provide statistically valid conclusions, they represent an important sector in the farming community that shows future directions of food versus biofuel productions. The farmers indicated that they are fully aware of food production requirements and will endeavour to balance the two through soybean-maize crop rotation, a practice that not only ensures food security but also improves soil quality. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

The aim of the study was to find out whether or not engagement in urban agriculture for individuals and households is a response to a lack of formal wage employment in the post-apartheid period. This period is characterised by changes in the economy of South Africa which led to an observed increase in poverty and unemployment and an increase in informal employment. The study utilised both quantitative and qualitative methods to look at urban farming issues in KwaZulu-Natal. The quantitative data came from the KwaZulu-Natal Income Dynamics Surveys (KIDS), which carried out surveys in three waves spanning the period of democratic transition over a 10-year period in 1993, 1998 and 2004. This data was analysed using the statistical package STATA and employed regression modelling techniques to investigate the odds of engagement in urban agriculture, given certain individual and household characteristics, which is a particular nuance for this study. Because of its potential in food production and income generation, a smaller-scale qualitative farmer survey was undertaken in two different communities, comparing three different categories of home gardening, community gardening and market gardening in KwaZulu-Natal, using a semi-structured questionnaire. This component sought to document, in farmers’ own words, their experiences and practice of farming in an urban environment and gave in-depth insights about the motivation of the people involved, the types of food crops grown, and so on. Key informant interviews were conducted with a community of professionals for illuminating their perspectives on the practice of urban agriculture in KwaZulu-Natal. The key findings of the study are that urban agriculture is an activity that is undertaken by people seeking a survival strategy when their preferred activity (such as formal employment) is not available and it can be an activity undertaken by entrepreneurs for income generation. According to their main activity status, the types of people that engage in urban agriculture include those in wage employment and the unemployed, as well as the non-economically active. The contribution of agricultural income to total household income represents miniscule amounts, at an average of less than one percent. Regression modelling results, combining person level and household level variables, predicted more likely odds of farming for women, by a factor of 1.67. Increase in the number of years of education decreased the odds by 0.90 times. If a person lost employment, this increased their odds of engaging in urban agriculture by 1.23 times. People in the age group 36-46 years predicted the highest likelihood for participation in urban agriculture, by a factor of 2.54. Larger household size predicted odds more likely to engage while poor households also predicted odds more likely to engage, by a factor of 2.07 times. Urban agriculture is vastly heterogeneous and is undertaken by all income groups. It is a result of both push and pull factors. People engage in it neither as a survival strategy nor an entrepreneurial strategy only. It is, however, an activity in which the poor are disproportionately represented. The potential of urban agriculture to generate employment is linked to the nature of support received from government and non-governmental organisations. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

No abstract available. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1969.

This study considers the relationships between women and land amongst female land owners in two communities within KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Motivated by the lack of qualitative data surrounding women as land beneficiaries, this study focuses on the extent to which land and land ownership effect women’s livelihood strategies and how such assets contribute to and/or limit women’s practical and strategic needs. Although this study supports data suggesting that women’s access to land and land ownership is slowly increasing, it suggests that the positive effects of land on women’s lives are greatly limited by poor access to basic services and agricultural inputs, and lingering patriarchal cultural norms. Such limitations, combined with low education levels amongst women regarding their land rights, have thus far hindered the South African Department of Land Affairs in meeting its targeted goals of poverty reduction and livelihood improvements. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

This study explores the perceptions of the value of community gardens by members and the relationship between this activity and homestead farming activities in Ogagwini, Umbumbulu District, KwaZulu-Natal. Establishing and supporting community gardens is consistent with the strategies adopted by South African national and provincial government to alleviate poverty, address food security and improve livelihoods for rural people. However, there is a lack of literature available on why rural people choose to involve themselves in community garden projects and whether these reasons are those intended by policy makers. There is abundant research on community gardening – most of it either urban or not specific as to setting. This literature is useful for the generic information it provides, but does not provide the scope of understanding that is unique to rural community gardening in South Africa. Thus this study contributes to understanding rural community gardens and possible adjustments needed by extension workers and development strategies to ensure effective food gardening practices in rural KwaZulu-Natal. The first extension facilitated community garden activities in Ogagwini were established in 1993 with the support of the provincial DAEA. Some community garden members are also members of the Ezemvelo Farmers Organisation (EFO), a group of farmers engaged in commercial small-scale farming. This research attempted to find out how community gardening activities were related to small-scale commercial homestead activities. Specifically, the study sought to investigate issues such as preferences among farmers between community gardens and homestead farming; the social and economic benefits derived from community gardens; and perceptions around environmental/ecological issues surrounding community gardens and homestead farming. A survey questionnaire on community garden activities and perceptions was given to EFO members and used to identify participants for this study. Committee members of the EFO (also members of community gardens) arranged for five gardens to be investigated. In-depth data was collected at the actual garden sites using semi-structured focus group discussions and participant observation. The data from the survey questionnaire was verified and clarified by semi structured probing during these discussions. A spiral approach was used to organise responses and make sense of the data within social, economic, and environmental themes. After three garden visits, no new knowledge was forthcoming and due to time constraints the study was limited to these three groups. The study found that there were no distinct linkages between homestead farms and community gardens, but that the systems operated on different principles. Community gardens were used to produce cabbages, carrots, beetroot, onions, green peppers and spinach mainly for consumption, whereas homestead farms produce field crops such as maize, amadumbes (taro), sweet potato, potatoes, pumpkins and peanuts. The study further identified social and economic benefits and environmental impacts and reinforces the importance of knowledge sharing amongst participants. The main benefits identified were income generation, sharing of knowledge and technical support The Department of Agriculture should carefully address sustainability issues when planning and implementing community gardens. This would include being able to carry on in the absence of an agricultural extension officer. Training programmes need to ensure that learning is transferable; that it is not overly commodity or technology specific and includes promotion of environmental awareness. This study has highlighted a number of potentially valuable issues for further situated research in the area of farming protocols, markets and the social value of community gardening within rural communities.

Agriculture is a potentially important activity to address poverty, hunger and unemployment in rural communal areas. To cater for the needs of the many small-scale farmers in KwaZuluNatal, the Farming Systems Research Section (FSRS) was mandated in the mid-1990s to conduct on-farm, client-orientated research in rural communal areas. The identification of the Obonjaneni community as target area by the Extension staff was based on the fact that agriculture was in a poor state and that very few agricultural activities were taking place in Obonjaneni. Members of the community endorsed this by describing agriculture as "dead and not sick" when the FSRS arrived in the community during late 1997. Secondary information gleaned from the Bioresource Programme indicated that there was considerable potential for improved crop and vegetable production in Obonjaneni. Livestock in the community was destructive and prevented crop production activities in the communal cropping fields. A diagnostic study took place during March 1998, when 17 people engaged in agriculture were individually interviewed at their homesteads. Of the 17 respondents interviewed, 10 (59%) were involved with both crops and livestock, six (35%) planted crops only and one (6%) had only livestock. Most of the agricultural products were retained to satisfy household food requirements, with a very small proportion of products (29% of respondents indicated a once-off income through selling of potatoes, maize or livestock) being marketed in the community. The diagnostic survey, and further discussions with members of the community, revealed that agriculture was in a poor state, in terms, for example, of productivity, community interest in agriculture and livestock control. The two main issues which had a negative impact on the agricultural activities in Obonjaneni were identified as stray animals and a lack of agricultural expertise. Indications were that no-one in the community was permanently involved in agriculture and no-one seemed to rely on agriculture as a source of income. Obonjaneni is, however, an area with high agricultural potential and reports were that, in the past, the community was actively involved in agriculture. At the time of the interviews, no activity was taking place in the 40 ha of communal cropping fields, which had been unplanted for five to seven years at the time of the interviews, due largely to the major problem of stray animals. Maize was the main crop produced in Obonjaneni in areas around the homesteads, with 16 (94%) of the respondents interviewed planting it. People interviewed harvested between 100 kg and 1000 kg of shelled maize, while the yield averaged VI approximately 300 kg per household. The maize yields obtained from the small areas at the homesteads in general did not meet the requirements of households. People in the community did not use lime when growing crops and vegetables. Soil analyses indicated that soil fertility, and particularly the high soil acidity levels, were negatively affecting the production of crops and vegetables. Another important finding was that all the people interviewed spent money on some fertilizer, but 94% of the farmers interviewed had never had their soils tested. The community garden was in a poor state, with low vegetable yields and despondent garden members. Poverty, the agricultural constraints identified and the low agricultural production justified the focus of an on-farm research and technology dissemination programme. The objective of the intervention was to revive agriculture in Obonjaneni. The constraints were used as the basis for planning the research programme. The on-farm trials confirmed that the Obonjaneni area has considerable agricultural potential. It was found to be extremely difficult to initiate a livestock programme to address the constraints. The main reason for this was the absence of an organised community livestock association in Obonjaneni to provide support and to guide a research programme. The main technology dissemination events were (i) activities such as planting, management (e.g. weeding and pest and disease control) and harvesting of trials (ii) farmers' field days and (iii) feedback meetings on trial results. The farmers ' field days drew participation from across all sectors of the community, including community leaders, participating and nonparticipating farmers (including some farmers from neighbouring communities) and pupils, who had agriculture as a subject, from the local secondary school. An important input was obtained from members of the community's Amazizi Maize Association, who shared their knowledge and experiences at the farmers ' field days and at meetings. Feedback from farmers and the questions asked by them were encouraging and showed that some farmers were benefiting from the on-farm trials. A very strong indicator of the growing interest in agriculture between 1997 and 2002, when a comprehensive impact evaluation study was conducted as part of the study, was the increase in the number of fields being cultivated and planted in the communal cropping area. In 1997 not one field was planted; during the cropping season of 1998/1999 eight fields were planted with maize, 16 fields during 200112002 and 44 fields in January 2003 (41 fields with maize vu and 3 with potatoes). Records kept by two farmers showed net profits during the 200112002 season ofR3 572 and R2 443 from the maize they produced. During the impact evaluation study conducted in September and October 2002, individual interviews were held and 113 questionnaires were completed from a selected sample of 223 out of a possible 937 homesteads in Obonjaneni. Women in 68% of these households were found to be responsible for agricultural activities. The feedback from 65% of the respondents was that the state of agriculture in Obonjaneni has improved at the time of the interviews, compared to the situation prior to the on-farm research and technology dissemination programme, when the people had described agriculture as "dead and not sick". The improved production of crops contributed largely to the view that agriculture in Obonjaneni had improved. Bearing in mind the poor state of agriculture, and the total absence of any cropping activity in the communal fields when the FSRS arrived in Obonjaneni. Five years later approximately 90% of the respondents in October 2002 were of the view that agriculture had a good and bright future for agriculture in the community. An important aspect was that approximately 23% of the respondents had the vision of being upgraded from "a small- to a large-scale farmer" category. The on-farm research and technology dissemination programme conducted in Obonjaneni between 1998 and 2002 contributed to the revival of agriculture and benefited people in terms of improved crops and vegetable production, especially in the communal cropping fields and community garden. It was responsible for some employment opportunities (e.g. weeding and harvesting of maize) and for the production of produce to sell and buy in their own community. The intervention of the FSRS engendered new enthusiasm for agricultural production in the Obonjaneni community and contributed to the appreciation by farmers of the enormous potential that agriculture holds for food security and the upliftment of people living in the community. This thesis includes chapters dealing with target area selection, secondary information, diagnostic studies, on-farm research and technology dissemination, the selection of a sample and the results of an impact evaluation study. The many lessons learned during this intervention are translated into recommendations for use in future initiatives of a similar kind. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

Cities, particularly in developing countries, are faced .with the challenge of population increase aggravated by rural to urban migration. This has increased the level of unemployment since job creation does not keep up with the rate at which population influx to cities occurs. This leads to poverty that undermines the economy of the city. Urban agriculture (UA) has the potential to improve livelihoods of the urban poor people through contributing to food security and generating income. However, UA has generally not been practised successfully and in a sustainable manner, owing to the lack of resources (land and finance), farming skills, and inadequate support services from organizations. This study presupposes that the inadequacy of resources in support of UA strongly reflects the level of co-operation and co-ordination among those who are, or could support UA. It will also reflect the levels of commitment of a shared vision. It thus sets out to explore the prospects of organizational collaboration to support UAand uses the Greater Pietermaritzburg Area (PMB) as a focus for the study. The local organizations in PMB were found to have frameworks through which they supported UA and other development projects. They were however found not to have any strategic plan, clear definition of organizations' roles, no common understanding of UA, nor a shared mission or vision of UA. As a result there was poor coordination and commitment to collaboration. It appears that a successful collaboration requires most importantly, an acknowledgement of the complexity of collaboration and a clear understanding of its purpose among the collaborating partners. Also required is accepting the need for leadership, integration of ideas when planning and implementing, clarification of roles and accountability. To appreciate this, organizational and individual empowerment is needed. Empowerment could take three forms: objective (knowledge of collaborations' aim, objectives, and procedures), subjective (assertiveness to undertake work involved), and competency (acquisition of skills to enhance ability to perform). The study believes these .factors could help improve the performance of organizational frameworks in developing UA to a point that its full potential is realized. The findings emphasized the value of adopting a systems approach in organizing delivery of services in support of UA. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

Migration from rural to urban areas has characterized the South African population in the last quarter of the 20th century. More recently, internal urban growth itself has contributed to the rapid growth of cities. This rapid population increase in towns and cities has resulted in a range of social and environmental problems. Food insecurity is one such problem, it is contended, that could be addressed by the more wide spread development of urban agriculture (UA). The literature review helped the researcher to understand the problems and potential of UA. For the purposes of this study , UA is defined as the growing of plants , tree crops and raising of livestock within and at peri-urban areas. It focuses specifically on the 'community' type ventures rather than that associated with individual households. UA is an effective and efficient way of converting urban waste land and underutilized resources into food products , generate income and create jobs . The literature review and the case studies underlined the importance of UA to supplement household income and address issue of food security. However, the activity has been largely overlooked by local government, policy makers and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). It was also realized that UA is not a widespread or common practice in the cities of South Africa although the majority of the urban populations are poor due to past apartheid policy, rapid urbanization and the relatively slow growth of the economy as a whole. Against the above background, this study focused on socio-economic analysis of vegetable production in the study area by identifying and examining the role played and potential socio-economic and environmental importance of UA in the Greater Edendale Area (GEA). The study was conducted in the GEA particularly in three vegetable gardens, namely, the African Tree Centre (ATC), the Edendale Lay Ecumenical Centre (ELEC) and the Willow Fountain Centre (WFC). Primary data were collected through using structured interviews, key informant interviews , personal observation and through a literature review and the consultation of documents and records from the organizations surveyed. Agricultural activities in general and UA in particular in the study area were limited. Production at present is also low. However, the production of vegetables and fruits and the raising of poultry do relatively well when compared to other UA activities. Very few people in the study area were practising UA because of the lack of suitable land set aside for the purpose, lack of equipment and lack of financial and technical support. The initial cost of starting community based UA was found to be high. This situation has limited the number of urban farmers. If people are able to meet the start up costs, they can provide the urban poor with fresh and affordable produce. ln addition, the lack of information and awareness, in relation to the actual and potential benefit of UA, has limited its spread in the study area. It is also possible to optimize the capacity of UA with limited inputs. High production per hectare is possible and is well suited to low-income families and it allows women, who constitute the majority of urban farmers, to participate. The young, the old and the unemployed are other potential beneficiaries. However, lack of recognition, and cultural biases (i.e, many urban managers and policy makers think that allowing UA in cities 'ruralises' them of its activities hinder the realization of the potential role of UA. Therefore, integration of UAin the plans, policies and activities of stakeholders, particularly urban planners, city administrations, NGOs, local universities, extension and credit organizations, and community based organizations (CBOs) should be a priority issue. Strategies to ensure a higher priority for UA need to be carefully articulated. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

Urban agriculture is gaining more attention because of the current global trends such as urbanization and global economic and food crisis. The numbers of people who practice urban agriculture are estimated to 800 million. Based on this scale and other claims made about urban agriculture, it is argued that urban agriculture must be integrated to urban policy and planning. The premise of this dissertation was to understand motivations and determinants of urban agriculture, and how these can inform policy. The intention of the dissertation was to understand which urban residents in KwaMsane Township of uMkhanyakude district at KwaZulu-Natal province cultivated gardens and why. This was critical considering that generally urban areas are better than rural areas in terms of employment opportunities, infrastructure, and provision of basic services. In pursuit of this objective, the dissertation assessed KwaMsane Township households cultivating gardens in terms of assets, resources, and livelihood strategies with an aim of identifying motivations and determinant factors. The central idea of the dissertation from the onset was to validate the claim that since there is diversity in terms of household composition among those cultivating gardens there are different reasons for engaging with the activity. Using qualitative with borrowed participatory action tools, and quantitative (STATA 11) methods guided by the sustainable livelihood approach, the findings showed that only 9.7% of KwaMsane Township residents cultivated gardens. Of the households 92% were cultivating gardens and consuming their produce because of food demand due to large household size and children, their awareness about nutritional content of fresh vegetables from the soil, their agricultural background of cultivating gardens for subsistence purposes, high food prices from the market, and their lack of necessary skills to create and sell in the local market. The binary logistic regression showed that the determinants for households to cultivate gardens at KwaMsane Township were the presence of children, agricultural assets, governmental grants, and pensioners in a household. The two common factors between the above mentioned determinants were income and time availability which incentivized the practice. The dissertation also showed that the majority of gardeners from KwaMsane Township were in their productive ages (in this case between 29 and 61 years of age), females were more predominant in the activity with few males, and most of the gardeners were educated, and employed. However, gender, education, and employment had little relationship with cultivation of gardens. On average gardeners were older than non-gardeners. It was also shown that gardeners consisted of different income groups but mostly middle income group. The dissertation indicated that the use of urban agriculture by KwaMsane Township gardeners was informed by their motivations which contributed to food security, food sovereignty, and poverty alleviation. / Thesis (M.Dev.Studies)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Urban agriculture in South Africa has been historically labelled as an illegal activity. This has been compounded by the traditional planning system in South Africa that did not recognise urban agriculture as part of the land use in the urban landscape. However despite its illegality, current evidence shows that it is commonly practised by many poor households in developing countries. There is growing evidence that most countries are gradually seeing the value of urban agriculture among poor households and to this end, they are beginning to realise the importance of incorporating it in their urban policy packages. Despite this recognition and acceptance of urban agriculture as a livelihood and food security strategy among the urban poor, little attention is paid to it. This research examines urban agriculture from a purely spatial planning perspective by way of elaborating on the spatial allocation of land for urban agriculture. The focus of the research is on identifying the factors that explain the unresponsiveness of the town planning system and challenges that confront urban farmers with the intention to suggest alternatives. At the core of the town planning system, are legislations and policies. Despite these irresponsive legislations such as NEMA and Health Act which hinder the practice of urban agriculture along sensitive areas such as river banks and road reserves urban agriculture continues to flourish. Regardless of minimal support from local authority the research findings show that the practise of agriculture is a common phenomenon among urban poor. The onus is therefore on the local authorities to promote it by putting in place mechanisms that should promote its growth and integrate it into mainstream development plans. / Thesis (M.T.R.P.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.