Six forage grass species from the United States were evaluated for salinity tolerance and growth performance. A randomized block design was used with six repetitions of five furrows each to maintain experimental consistency. The study was conducted in the Tamborada region of Cochabamba, Bolivia from December 2003 through June 2004. Results indicated that significant differences exist between species (Pr<0.01). The species Elymus cinereus and Agropyron elongatum demonstrated the best performance regarding plant height, achieving heights of 35.4 cm and 32.7 cm respectively. Festuca arundinacea and Agropyron elongatum obtained larger percent coverage than the other species with 79.59% and 76.53% respectively. These species also exceed the others in production of green forage (1500.00 kg/ha and 13985.80 kg/ha) as well as in production of dry matter (5000.70 kg/ha and 4862.85 kg/ha). They are recommended for production in the region of Tamborada, Cochabamba, Bolivia.

The objective of the following work was to evaluate the agronomical behavior of two kinds of Swiss chard fertilized with earthworm humus, and at the same time to know the yield and the costs of production. This work was done in the community of Letanias, located 32 km. from the Department of La Paz and at an altitude of 3860 meters above sea level. Two kinds of Swiss chard were used in this work, Fordhook Giant and Petoseed C003. The three doses of earthworm humus, used as fertilizers, were a2, a3, and a4. The quantity of fertilizer used was 1314, 3560, and 5806 kg per acre, respectively. The Swiss chard was cultivated in a moderate environment, which was in an underground greenhouse with a depth of 1.80 meters. This was so due to the better thermal conditions. Fordhook Giant was the kind that had the best agronomical behavior, reaching an average size of 47.6 cm. for the length of the leaves. From the three levels of Factor A in study, level a3 had the best yield giving an average of 18.1 kg/m^2 of green matter, to which a dosage of 3438 kg. of earthworm humus was applied per acre. The length of the leaves reached an average size of 51.3 cm. The protein content in the Swiss chard leaves increased due to the application of earthworm humus to the ground, thus improving their nutritional quality. The physical and especially the chemical properties were affected positively by the incorporation of earthworm humus. The B/C economic analysis shows that when the earthworm humus is used, the net benefits increase, therefore the farmer family will have a higher income which will help them improve their quality of life.

With the goal of analyzing the genetic variability of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) germ plasm around Lake Titicaca, which is conserved in the National Bank of High Andean Grains of the PROINPA Altiplano Regional Foundation, the agromorphological behavior of 432 quinoa samples from the surrounding area (both Bolivian and Peruvian) were characterized and evaluated. This activity occurred at agricultural step 99/2000 of Belén Agricultural Station (16°1' South by 68°42' West), with the San Andrés Higher University Faculty of Agronomy, which because of its proximity to the lake represents climate conditions like those of the studied material's origin. In order to determine standards of genetic variation, identify the most discriminating quantitative variables, and classify sample groups of different genetic variability, two multivariate methods were applied using 17 quantitative variables: 5 phenotypic, 10 morphological, yield, and harvest index. The descriptive statistical analysis showed a wide genetic variability regarding the phenologic cycle and the size of the quinoa plants. According to the simple correlation analysis, the most important associations between phenologic variables corresponded to 50% of flowering at the beginning and end of flowering. The morphological variables highlight associations between leaf width with leaf length and stalk length. Likewise, the associations between yield and stem diameter, length of the grain bunch, diameter of the grain bunch, and plant height are statistically significant. All of these are positively associated with the other phenotypic variables. The architecture of the plant, in contrast, negatively influenced the yield and harvest index. The analysis of principle components identified 4 significant components that contributed more than 69% of total variance. The first principal component identified tall plants with thick stems, with large leaves and grain bunches, but with a late phenologic cycle and, as such, with low harvest indexes. The second principal component identified early plants of medium size that tend to develop relatively thick stems, with medium leaves, grain bunches and good-quality grain. Consequently, they produced the best yield. Similarly, the proportion of total variance contributed by each variable over the 4 significant components was determined. It was found that the most important and discriminating variables were 50% flowering, flowering index, and end of flowering, followed by weight of 100 grains, grain diameter, yield, and finally the length of the grain bunch, length of leaves, stem diameter, and leaf width. A non-hierarchical K-medium grouping technique permitted the classification of quinoa samples around Lake Titicaca in two groups. Group 1 consisted of 161 late quinoa plants with tall heights, large grain bunches, and low harvest indexes. Group 2 consisted of 271 early quinoa plants of medium size, leaves, and grain bunches, with small grains that at the same time have high harvest indexes.

Pankar-huyus are becoming an alternative solution to the Bolivian Altiplano's climate problems for agriculture and to help provide adequate nutrition for the inhabitants of this region. Pankar-huyus are small modules with mild ambient temperatures that cover roughly 4 m^2. They are built underground and are covered by agrofilm caps that, in this study, were partially opened by day and closed at night. This study evaluated the climactic parameters of minimum and maximum temperature, minimum and maximum relatively humidity inside the pankar-huyus, wind velocity outside and inside the pankar-huyus at 40 cm from the soil and at the level of the soil (thus obtaining net ratiation). The crop planted was Grand Rapids TBR--variety lettuce. The study tested two depths, 0.80 m and 1.20 m, of the pankar-huyus combined with two different degrees of cover opening, of 20 cm and 40 cm. The lettuce was planted twice (two cultivation cycles). The first was in September to October, the second from November to December. These two cycles in the present study are the two time periods mentioned. The first cycle's nursery was a walipini with disinfected soil, and the plants developed without problems. The second cycle's nursery was planted in another walipini with a non-disinfected surface, which resulted in a fungal infection that directly affected the second cycle's yield. The climate parameters were measured by instruments, which were: Thermohydrometers to measure temperature and humidity, anemometer to measure wind velocity, and a luxó to measure solar radiation. Of the combination of variables in this study, modules with a depth of 1.20 meters and a 40 cm opening gave the highest yield for this crop, despite the second crop being notably affected by a fungal infection. One of the advantages of this type of system is the favorable minimum temperatures for temperate crops. Among its disadvantages are the elevated maximum temperatures and the high minimum relative humidity of some of the modules, especially those with 0.80 m depths. Solar radiation was observed to diminish as it penetrated deeper depths inside the modules. Wind velocity did not have much influence on the magnitude inside the modules. However, greater velocity was measured on the soil, which is the center of the modules. The exterior climate factors that directly affected the interior of the modules were: maximum temperature, minimum relative humidity, and wind velocity because these occurred when the modules' covers remained open. Solar radiation is one of the principal parameters because it gives the energy necessary for all the crop's biochemical and metabolic processes.

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is an important crop in many countries. According to the IRRI, more than 2 billion people globally depend on rice as a staple food (Dawe, et al. 2003). Studies on micronutrient content in rice and the effect of water in availability of the nutrients may aid in decreasing global nutrient deficiencies. Rice is grown under different water regimes such as AWD and intermittent flooding, sprinkler and furrow irrigation. A greenhouse pot experiment of rice utilizing a split plot design under different water regimes was conducted to assess the affect of water on (1) DTPA extractable soil micronutrients Fe, Mn Cu and Zn; (2) stem micronutrient concentration and uptake of rice (Oryza sativa L.) alone and with ground legume incorporated; and (3) yield of rice. The water regimes included: (1) rice pots watered to field capacity, or well-drained (drain); (2) pots submerged for 3 weeks, dried down for 1 week, then re-submerged for three weeks, or alternate wet and dry (AWD); and (3) continuous flooded (flood) conditions. A preliminary study which examined vegetative yield and micronutrient uptake of rice, faba beans, and sesbania using two different soils (Zaca clay and a loam) under flooded and drained conditions was conducted. Ground sesbania from the exploratory experiment was used for the study to explore the effects of organic matter (OM) on yield and micronutrient content. All DTPA extractable soil micronutrients except Zn were highest in the flood and AWD water treatments and in the lowest pH value. The DTPA extractable Zn values in the drain water treatment were twice as high as the AWD and flood water treatments. Stem Zn concentration was highest in drained, whereas Fe, Mn and Cu stem concentration were highest in AWD and flood treatments. Addition of sesbania incorporated into the soil only affected Mn soil micronutrient concentration, where Mn soil content was observed to be higher in the flood treatment with sesbania incorporated into the soil. Grain weight and grain to stem ratio were significantly increased by AWD and flood water treatments (p<0.05). Organic matter (sesbania) incorporated into the soil did not affect Fe, Mn, Cu or Zn stem to grain ratio. A comparison of stem concentration to grain yield highlighted the effects of Mn and Zn content on yield. Manganese stem content was highest in AWD and flood treatments where grain yield and grain to stem ratio were highest, while Zn content was lowest in AWD and flood treatments. Zinc stem content was highest in the drain treatment.

The importance of trace elements nutrients to vegetable crops has received more attention in recent years. Accordingly this experiment investigated the benefit of foliar applied copper fertilizer on romaine lettuce (Lactuca Sativa Longifolia) grown in low soil Copper (Cu) concentration in the coastal Santa Maria, California. The various rates of Cu fertilizer applied include untreated (control), 100, 200, 400 and 800 grams per acre of CuSO4.5H 2O, using a one time and a split application methods. Three consecutive individual experimental fields were established starting in late spring through the fall of 2008. The soil texture was a loam in all three of the experimental fields. Positive responses in weight increase were found due to these treatments, however was not statistically significant. The maximum responds in weight increase was identified with the one-time application of 200 and 400 grams/acre of CuSO4 but weight decline was observed at the higher rates of 800 grams/acre. The optimum weight increases were between 4.4 and 6 percent higher than the untreated plots. The treatments significantly increased the uptake of Cu by plants (pvalue <0.001). When analyzed collectively, significant difference was found in plant weights between the three experimental fields. Crops harvested one week earlier than scheduled produced 21% lower mean weight than those harvested on time. No apparent physical damage was identified in plants having leaf cu concentrations exceeding the suggested toxic level of 150 ppm but weight decline was observed thereafter. In 2009 an additional experimental field was established in a sandy loam, 8% clay and was completed in March. Rate of applications was modified to include untreated control, 200, 400 and 500 grams/acre, at one time application only. Again Positive responses in weight increase were found due to these treatments, however was not statistically significant. The optimum result in weight increase was found with the application of 200 grams/acre of CuSO4. The overall mean weights of the plants were comparatively higher than that of the three previous experimental fields. The weight increase was 7.5% higher than the untreated plots. Key Words: Foliar; CuSO4.5H 2O (Cu Sulfate Pentahydrate); Trace elements nutrients.

Potassium (K) deficiency of soybean [Glycine max (Merr.) L.] is common throughout the Mid-Southern region of the United States. Visual symptoms of K deficiency may be absent or subtle during early and mid-reproductive growth stages. Correcting K deficiency in-season is problematic due to limited research. Information regarding soybean yield response to in-season fertilizer K application time is limited to growth stages prior to the onset of R1. Research is also limited on new higher yielding soybean cultivars. The objective of this study was to evaluate influences of in-season K application timing during reproductive growth stages on soybean yield. Field experiments were established in 2019, 2020, and 2021 to evaluate the effect of soybean potassium rate and timing during reproductive growth stages. Four independent experiments were established to: (1) determine the effect of applying K fertilizer to sufficient soils at different times in-season on yield and plant K status on two different soil textures, (2) determine the effects of K timing, K rate, and dicamba rate on yield and plant stress, and (3) determine the effects of K timing and desiccation on yield and plant stress. Results indicate that potassium application rate and timing during soybean reproductive growth stages do not increase yield on soils with adequate K present. Soybean trifoliate leaf tissue K analysis and petiole sap K analysis had no response during reproductive growth stages when K fertilization occurred on soils with ample K. Potassium fertilization did not aid soybean recovery after dicamba injury.

Secreted surface proteins are an innate immune defense component employed by animals to inhibit invading microbes. Surface proteins have not been documented in plants, even though the aerial leaf surface, or phylloplane, is a major site of pathogen ingress. We have discovered novel proteins, termed phylloplanins, which accumulate on leaf surfaces of Nicotiana tabacum, and we have isolated the gene Phylloplanin that is unique in gene databases. Natural and E. coli-expressed phylloplanins inhibit spore germination and limit leaf infection by the oomycete pathogen Peronospora tabacina. We investigated the site of phylloplanin biosynthesis using biochemical techniques. These techniques included radiolabeling of detached trichome glands, radiolabeling of epidermal peels, analysis of leaf water washes of various Nicotiana plants, and examination of guttation fluid, leaf vein contents, and extracellular fluid. From these experiments, we tentatively conclude that phylloplanins are produced by hydathodes, or an unknown surface secreting system, but not by glandular secreting trichomes. Future experiments with the phylloplanin promoter, whose elucidation is described herein, and its fusion to a reporter gene (GUS or GFP), will undoubtedly provide further insight into the location of phylloplanin biosynthesis and deposition. We suggest that the hydrophobic nature of phylloplanins aids in their dispersal over the leaf surface. Phylloplanins constitute a first-point-of-contact, rapid response, innate immune deterrent to pathogen establishment on N. tabacum leaf surfaces, and are the first studied representatives of a novel protein class in the plant kingdom. Further study of leaf surface proteins is justified to understand further their roles in plant defense, and to investigate their potential in agricultural biotechnology. Additionally, we describe miscellaneous observations we have made during the course of this research. Low molecular mass proteins (as yet uncharacterized) are washed from leaf surfaces of sunflower, soybean, and other plants. Pathogenesis-related (PR-)-5a, a known antifungal protein, was found to be present on the leaf surfaces of healthy plants, although its function there remains unknown. A phylloplanin homologue from Arabidopsis appears to be antibacterial. Further study of this protein is warranted. We note that proteins can also be recovered from N. tabacum root surfaces, or the rhizoplane, but we have not further characterized these proteins. In summary, novel surface-accumulated proteins, termed phylloplanins, and the gene encoding these have been discovered in N. tabacum. An antifungal function for phylloplanins is reported, and evidence was found for a unique mechanism of surface deposition.

Of all the plant nutrients, nitrogen has been subjected to the most extensive study. The amount of inorganic nitrogen in the soil is small while the quantity needed annually by crops is comparatively large. Of the macronutrients usually applied in commercial fertilizers, nitrogen seems to have the quickest and most pronounced effect on plant growth. In applying the nitrogen fertilizer for crop use, one must be concerned with placement, form, and availability, and with keeping the fertilizer where it is placed throughout the critical part of the growing season. The nitrogen supply molded by non-leguminous plants is of extreme importance and its availability is complicated by the fact that nitrogen in soils is easily converted into forms which are more or less mobile and available. The time of application of nitrogen fertilizer can significantly affect its availability. It commonly is applied in either the spring or fall in row crop culture. Under our climatic conditions, nitrogen applied in the fall tends to be lost by denitrification and leaching over the winter period, and the practice is not economical. There are also disadvantages associated with spring application of nitrogen. Application is needed at a time when the farmer is extremely busy and where the soil may be too wet to support the application equipment. No-tillage farming, which is relatively new, apparently increases the rate of nitrogen movement through the soil profile. No-tillage results in a mulch of dead plant material on the surface. The mulch tends to keep more moisture in the soil. This extra moisture can be beneficial to the crop but it also permits the nitrogen to move more rapidly through the soil. The present student was initiated to study the effects of tillage practice and time of nitrogen application on the movement of nitrate through a Pembroke silt loam soil. This soil is typical of the well-drained limestone soils found in Southern Kentucky.

Yield, crude protein, and crude fiber of 'Piper' sudangrass (Sorghum bicolor var. sudanese (L.) Moench), and 'Sweet Sioux' and 'FFR66 1 sorghum (Sorghum bicolor(L.) Moench) X sudangrass hybrids were studied during the growing season and after frost. Three treatments were studied, namely--4-s (four summer harvests and short or about 0.6 m at the time of frost), 3-M (three summer harvests and medium or 1.5 in at the time of frost), 2-T (two summer harvests and tall or 2.0 in at the time of frost). Dry matter yield, crude protein, and crude fiber were calculated. The three cultivars did not differ consistently for yield, crude protein, or crude fiber during the summer or fall. The 3-M treatment provided more dry matter (not significantly higher than the 2-T treatment), more total crude protein, and approximately the same amount of crude fiber as the 4-S and the 2-T treatment. Results of this study indicate that sorghum cultivars can be grazed rotationally, or cut for hay or silage during early summer, and the late summer and early fall growth accumulated for in situ utilization by livestock during fall and early winter.