Reservas Indígenas têm tido um papel imprescindível na manutenção de áreas florestais na região neotropical. Existe na Amazônia uma clara associação entre estas reservas e a presença de cobertura florestal. Por outro lado, a simples presença de uma vegetação contínua não é garantia de conservação da biodiversidade, sobretudo em contextos onde a caça é presente. Este estudo analisou a pressão de caça sobre Macacoprego (Cebus apella) e Bugio (Alouatta belzebul), realizada pelos índios Guajá, da comunidade Awá (Maranhão, Brasil). A análise se baseou no conjunto de crânios e mandíbulas de indivíduos consumidos no local no final dos anos 1980. A análise de sustentabilidade se baseou em dois métodos principais, no Modelo de Produção e na análise do padrão intra-específico de abate. A aplicação do modelo de produção indicou uma caça acima dos níveis sustentáveis para as duas espécies, numa área efetiva de caça de 78,5 km2. Mesmo com a incorporação de uma área fonte, que resultou numa área total de 314 km2, o modelo continuou indicando uma caça não sustentável de Bugio. A análise do padrão intra-específico de abate, realizada somente para Bugio, indicou uma proporção de machos e adultos na amostra de Bugios abatidos significativamente maior do que aquela esperada para o gênero Alouatta, o que indica um padrão de caça não aleatório. Conjugando a análise quantitativa com os fatores locais de ordem demográfica e sóciocultural foi possível verificar a presença de fatores positivos e negativos à sustentabilidade no local. A ausência de caça comercial, o fato das duas espécies não serem naturalmente raras, a prática de expedições de caça de longa duração, e evidências de baixa proporção de fêmeas entre os Bugios abatidos se configuram como fatores positivos à sustentabilidade. Já os fatores que comprometem a manutenção das duas espécies na área são: a proximidade com centros urbanos e acesso a armas de fogo, o crescimento da população indígena, a baixa taxa intrínseca de crescimento natural dos primatas e a alta susceptibilidade de Bugio à caça. As previsões geradas neste estudo parecem estar corretas uma vez que é consenso entre os Guajá da comunidade Awá que há um processo de diminuição na disponibilidade de primatas, entre outras espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte, nos arredores do assentamento. O declínio de presas nas proximidades do assentamento tem aumentado a freqüência de retiros de caça de longa duração. Atualmente na comunidade Awá, estes retiros parecem reproduzir uma maior mobilidade existente antes do contato e conseqüente fixação. Essa dinâmica demonstra a importância do estabelecimento de Reservas Indígenas de tamanho adequado, oferecendo condições para que as comunidades assentadas possam se ajustar às flutuações locais de presas antes que o impacto local na fauna seja irreversível. / Indigenous lands have a crucial role in the preservation of Neotropical forests. In the Amazon there is clear association between indigenous land and forest cover. However, the simple presence of continuous vegetation doesn\'t guarantee the conservation of biodiversity, especially in the context where hunting is practiced. The present study analyzed hunting pressure on capuchin (Cebus apella) and howler monkeys (Alouatta belzebul) caused by Guajá indigenous people from Awá community (Maranhão sate, Brazil). The analysis was based on a set of skulls and mandibles from individual monkeys consumed at the Guajá settlement in the late 80\'s. Sustainability analyses were based on two models, the Production Model, and the Intraspecific Prey Choice. The development of the production model predicted hunting above sustainable levels for the two species, within an effective hunting area of 78,5 km2. Even with the incorporation of a source-area, which resulted in a total area of 314 km2, the model predicted unsustainable hunting for howler monkey. The Intraspecific Prey Choice analysis, done only for howler monkey, resulted in statistically significant higher proportion of males and adults in the sample than the one expected for the genus Alouatta if howler monkeys were hunted randomly. When quantitative analysis and local demographic and social-cultural factors were taken into consideration, it was possible to observe positive and negative aspects to local sustainability. The lack of marketable hunting, the fact that both species are not naturally rare, the practice of long-distance hunting, and the evidence of low proportion of howler monkey females killed, are all positive factors for sustainability. On the other hand, the proximity to urban centers, easy access to shot-guns, demographic growth of indigenous population, the low intrinsic reproductive level of howler monkeys, the high susceptibility of howler monkey to hunting, and the high proportion of adults killed, are all negative factors for sustainability. The predictions the present study generated seem to be corrected, for it is a consensus among the Guajá from Awá community that there is a current process of decreasing primate availability, among other large- and medium-sized mammals within the surrounding areas. One of the consequences of game-decrease in the proximity of the Awá settlement has been the increase in the frequency of long-distance hunting. Presently, this mobility pattern among Awá community seems to mimic pre-contact high mobility pattern. This dynamic demonstrates the importance of creating indigenous lands of adequate size that offers conditions for sustainable traditional subsistence patterns.

O Metano (CH4) é o segundo gás de efeito estufa mais importante, com aproximadamente 40% de sua emissão proveniente de fontes naturais, enquanto as fontes antrópicas representam cerca de 60%. Sua média global em 2009 foi de 1803ppb, que representa um aumento de 5ppb em relação ao ano anterior. Neste estudo foram calculados os fluxos de CH4, utilizando medidas de perfis verticais com aviões de pequeno porte, desde a superfície até 4,4km na Bacia Amazônica, sobre Santarém (SAN), Alta Floresta (ALF), Rio Branco (RBA) e Tabatinga (TAB), por meio do Método de Integração de Coluna. Estas medidas de CH4 em escala regional até o presente momento são únicas e representam uma nova abordagem nas emissões nesta escala. As medidas em SAN foram realizadas entre 2000 e 2010 e o fluxo de CH4 encontrado para este período foi de 53,0 ± 27,9mgCH4.m-2.dia-1. Para o ano de 2010, o maior fluxo de emissão de CH4 foi observado no lado leste da Bacia Amazônica, entre a costa e SAN, 56,4 ± 22,4mgCH4.m-2.dia-1. Entre a costa e ALF, ao sul da Bacia Amazônica, o fluxo médio anual foi de 17,1 ± 2,3mgCH4.m-2.dia-1, e entre a costa e os locais TAB e RBA, no lado oeste da Bacia, foi observado um fluxo médio anual de 18,7 ± 4,2 e 19,3 ± 10,2mgCH4.m-2.dia-1, respectivamente. Extrapolando os resultados obtidos em TAB e RBA para toda a área da Bacia Amazônica (5 milhões Km2) obtêm-se uma emissão de 34,7 ± 13,5TgCH4.ano-1. Com o objetivo de determinar a influência da queima de biomassa no fluxo regional de emissão de CH4, foi utilizada a correlação 6,4ppbCO/ppbCH4 calculada neste estudo, ALF foi o local de estudo que apresentou a maior influência no fluxo de CH4 oriundo da queima de biomassa, 23% do fluxo total anual. / Methane (CH4) is the second most important greenhouse gas with approximately 40% of emission from natural sources, while anthropogenic sources account for about 60%. The global average was 1803ppb in 2009, representing an increase of 5ppb in relation to the previous year. This study calculated the fluxes of CH4, using measurements of vertical profiles with small aircraft, from the surface to 4.4km in the Amazon Basin, over Santarém (SAN), Alta Floresta (ALF), Rio Branco (RBA) and Tabatinga (TAB), using the Column Integration Technique. These measurements of CH4 at a regional scale until now are unique and represent a new approach to emissions on this scale. SAN measurements were realized between 2000 and 2010 and CH4 flux found for this period was 53.0 ± 27.9mgCH4.m-2.day-1. For the year 2010, the largest flux of CH4 emission was observed in the eastern Amazon Basin, between the coast and SAN, 56.4 ± 22.4mgCH4.m-2.day-1. Between the coast and ALF, located in the south of the Amazon Basin, the annual mean flux was 17.1 ± 2.3mgCH4.m -2.day-1, and between the coast and the local TAB and RBA on the west side of the Basin was observed an mean annual flux of 18.7 ± 4.2 and 19.3 ± 10.2mgCH4.m-2.day-1, respectively. Extrapolating the results obtained in TAB and RBA for the whole area of the Amazon Basin (5 million km2) to obtain an emission of 34,7 ± 13,5TgCH4.year-1. In order to determine the influence of biomass burning on regional emission flux of CH4, was used a correlation 6.4ppbCO/ppbCH4 calculated in this study, ALF was the site that had the most influence on the CH4 flux from the burning biomass, 23% of the total annual flux.

Ao longo dos anos a implementação das políticas de saneamento básico no Brasil foram evoluindo gradativamente, porém as metas de universalização não serão alcançadas até 2030. Os piores índices historicamente se concentram nas regiões norte e nordeste, sendo mais acentuados nas áreas rurais. O Amapá é o estado mais preservado do país, abrange em seu território diversas modalidades de áreas protegidas e comunidades tradicionais, dentre elas a comunidade Água Branca do Cajari, localizada na Reserva Extrativista do Rio Cajari, objeto de estudo desta Dissertação, que consistiu na formulação e avaliação de alternativas para suprir a demanda de água potável e ao encaminhamento seguro dos esgotos sanitários. Para o alcance dos objetivos, foram realizadas duas campanhas de campo, com o intuito de conhecer o perfil social, econômico e ambiental da comunidade, através da aplicação de questionários e observação in situ, avaliação da qualidade das águas destinadas ao consumo humano, através de análises físico-químicas e microbiológicas e estimativas da geração de esgoto. A proposição das alternativas foi feita a partir do dimensionamento e avaliação dos custos de instalação, operação e manutenção ao longo do horizonte de planejamento de 20 anos. Os orçamentos foram elaborados a partir de dados disponíveis na literatura técnica e a composição dos custos por pesquisas de preço e fontes oficiais como o SINAPI. Treze poços freáticos são utilizados pela população que reside na parte alta da comunidade, enquanto os que moram na parte baixa, retiram diretamente do rio, adicionam polímero que adquirem informalmente para a clarificação das águas, em média 95% da população afirma realizar a desinfecção com hipoclorito de sódio, sendo que 41,1% da população tem acesso ao mínimo estabelecido pela ONU e 7,6% abaixo do recomendado. Estavam em não conformidade, de acordo como o que estabelece a Portaria n° 2.914/2011 do Ministério da Saúde, 75% das amostras analisadas para o parâmetro pH, 62,5% para turbidez, 90% para coliformes totais/Escherichia coli. Cerca de 82,3% do esgoto séptico gerado é encaminhado a fossas negras, e 13% das unidades domiciliares não dispõe de banheiro. O custo total dos sistemas foi de: sistema de bombeamento fotovoltaico 430.644,97 R$ (0,18 R$/hab.dia); aproveitamento de água de chuva de 432.236,72 R$ (0,19 R$/hab.dia); filtro lento domiciliar 7.326.27 R$; sistema de desinfecção solar (SODIS) 9.768,54 R$ e para o tratamento de esgoto sanitário unifamiliar, fossas sépticas \"Imhoff\" e sumidouro 434.371,32 R$ ou 0,19 R$/hab.dia. Portanto, verificou-se que as alternativas avaliadas são viáveis economicamente e operacionalmente. A efetividade da implantação das tecnologias de tratamento de água e esgoto em comunidades isoladas ou de difícil acesso na Amazônia devem ser precedidas de estudos socioeconômicos, ambientais e culturais. / In the world, about 748 million of people do not have access to a potable water, more than 30% of the world population do not have appropriate installations and 1 million of people do their physical necessities in open areas, of theses, nine out ten are in rural areas. The policies about basic sanitation in Brazil gets better long of the years, but the marks for universalization cannot be touched until 2030. The indications get worst in north and northeast, especially in the countryside. Amapá is the most preserved state of Brazil, that has in its territory many spaces of protected areas and traditional communities, one of them is Àgua Branca do Cajarí, located in an extractive reserve, and is the focus of this issue, whose objective is propose and estimate better ways to get a high quality of water and sanitary wastewaters. To get better results, it was necessary to visit at these areas to know the community social, economic and environmental profile through questionnaires and in situ observation, beside doing physic-chemical and microbiological analyzes. The proposition of the best alternatives was made by starting from the estimative of installation and conservation along of 20 years, getting the present prizes. Those estimative were based on technical literature, prizes researched and official sources as SINAPI. Thirteen phreatic wells are used by people who live on the higher part of the community while people that live on the lowest part need to take water right from the river, put some polymer that is taken informally to clarify the water. About 95% of people say that use sodium hypochlorite in water, but just 41% has the least required by UNO and 7.6% is low from what is demanded. According with the governmental decree N. 2914/2011, 75% of the sample that were analyzed showed to the pH parameter; 62.5% for turbidity; 90% for total coliforms/ Escherichia coli. About 82.3% of the septic sewer created is sent to black cesspool and 13% of the houses do not have a bathroom. The total cost of the systems was about R$ 430,644.97 for a photoelectric system (0.18 R$/resident.day). The perforation and preservation of the wells were not considered; R$ 432,236.72 if use rain water (0.19 R$/resident.day). R$ 7,326.27 for slow domiciliary filter. R$ 9,768.54 for solar disinfection system and R$ 434,371.32 for unifamilial sanitary sewer treatment, septic tank \"imhoff\" and escape hole (0.19 R$/resident.day). Therefore, it was possible to see that the alternatives analyzed were economically and operationally possible. The implementation of water and sewer treatment technologies in isolated communities of by difficult access in Amazonia must be followed by socioeconomic, environmental and cultural studies.

Neste estudo foi feita uma detalhada caracterização das propriedades óticas de partículas de aerossóis biogênicos, de poluição urbana e de queimadas na bacia Amazônia. Foram utilizadas diferentes abordagens, incluindo medidas in-situ e por sensoriamento remoto em várias localidades. Radiômetros solares da rede AERONET e instrumentos de medida de absorção (Aetalômetros e MAAP) e espalhamento (Nefelômetros) foram utilizados no experimento GoAmazon2014/5 que estudou o efeito das emissões urbanas de Manaus nas propriedades de aerossóis. Em regiões impactadas pela queima de biomassa, a forçante radiativa foi quantificada através de medidas da AERONET, separando as contribuições de carbono orgânico (OC) e elementar (EC). Com base apenas nas propriedades óticas dos aerossóis, foi feita uma análise qualitativa dos tipos de aerossóis dominantes durante a queima de biomassa na Amazônia, avaliando seus impactos no balanço radiativo. O OC emitido nas queimadas tem forte efeito de resfriamento no topo da atmosfera, com uma forçante radiativa de -53 ± 17 W/m². O EC é altamente absorvedor e, apesar de estar presente em menor quantidade que o OC, apresenta um forte efeito na forçante radiativa no topo da atmosfera, tornando-a significativamente menos negativa, com efeitos de até -12 ± 9 W/m². As propriedades de absorção e espalhamento associadas com as emissões urbanas da cidade de Manaus foram analisadas. Uma significativa diferença na componente de absorção da profundidade ótica foi observada entre dois sítios localizados vento acima e vento abaixo da pluma urbana. O efeito da absorção é notável principalmente na estação chuvosa, mas também pode ser observado com as plumas de queimadas na estação seca. A partir de medidas in-situ, foi observado que o albedo de espalhamento simples (SSA) médio diminui de 0,92 ± 0,06 antes de Manaus para 0,83 ± 0,11 na região impactada pela pluma urbana durante a estação chuvosa. Medidas in-situ do coeficiente de absorção do particulado PM10 foram realizadas em paralelo com o PM2.5 durante a estação chuvosa na reserva ZF2 para análise da absorção de partículas grossas biogênicas. Em condições de dominância do particulado biogênico, a absorção em 880 nm do PM10 é cerca de 10% superior à absorção do PM2.5 no mesmo comprimento de onda, inferindo a absorção da radiação por partículas biogênicas na moda grossa. / In this study, a detailed characterization of aerosol optical properties for the biological, urban pollution and biomass burning aerosols was performed in the Amazon basin. A number of different approaches were used, including in-situ and remote sensing measurements in several locations. As part of the GoAmazon2014/5 experiment, solar radiometers from AERONET Network and in-situ instruments measuring absorption (Aethalometers and MAAP) and scattering coefficients (Nephelometers) were used to assess the effect of Manaus urban emissions on the aerosol properties. In regions heavily affected by the biomass burning events, the radiative forcing retrieved by AERONET was quantified, separating the contributions of organic carbon (OC) and elemental (EC). Based exclusively on the aerosol optical properties, a qualitative analysis of the dominant aerosol types was performed in the Amazon, assessing its impact on the radiative balance. The OC emitted from biomass burn has strong cooling effect at the top of the atmosphere, presenting an instantaneous radiative forcing of -53 ± 17 W/m². The EC is highly absorbing and, despite its lower concentration compared to the OC, showed a strong effect on the instantaneous radiative forcing at the top of the atmosphere, making it significantly less negative, with an effect up to -12 ± 9 W/m². The absorption and scattering properties associated with the urban emissions from the Manaus city were analyzed. A significant difference on the absorption optical depth was observed between two sites located upwind and downwind of the urban plume, respectively. The effect of absorption is particularly remarkable in the rainy season, but can also be observed with the biomass burning plumes during the dry season. In-situ measurements showed that the averaged single scattering albedo (SSA) decreased from 0.92 ± 0.06 upwind to 0.83 ± 0.11 downwind of Manaus urban plume during the wet season. In-situ measurements of the spectral absorption coefficient of PM10 cut size were performed in parallel with the PM2.5 during the wet season at ZF2 reserve in order to study the light absorption by biological coarse particles. In atmospheric conditions with the dominance of biological particles, the PM10 absorption at 880 nm is up to 10 % higher than the PM2.5 absorption at the same wavelength, inferring the absorption of radiation by coarse mode biological particles.

Submitted by Gizele Lima (gizele.lima@inpa.gov.br) on 2017-11-06T14:15:51Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Victor LC Andrade -CFT INPA.pdf: 1497227 bytes, checksum: c2d78ac63d792e8aa52b29f8abfc9135 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-11-06T14:15:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Victor LC Andrade -CFT INPA.pdf: 1497227 bytes, checksum: c2d78ac63d792e8aa52b29f8abfc9135 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-04-28 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / From the moment Humans arrived in the Amazonian region, at least 12 ky ago, they started managing the forest, in a long term domestication process, yet with the indigenous demographic collapse after 1492, this ancient human-forest relationship may have been partially lost. Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. (Lecythidaceae) is an iconic nut tree that dominates vast swaths of the Amazon forest, and known for being used, managed and domesticated by humans since before the European arrival. Considering the intimate historical relationship between humans and the Amazon nut tree, it remains unclear if the long term population dynamics of this species within the forest has been driven by management practices, and if this interaction changed following the collapse of pre-colonial societies. Here we reconstruct over 300 years of population dynamics for a living Amazon nut tree stand in Central Amazonia, and relate this dynamics with human history in that region. For this we combine the analyses of tree-rings that may reveal how tree recruitment and growth rates changed through time, with historical information on the main political and economical facts that may have impacted the lives of indigenous and colonists. Our results reveal that the intensification of political dominance over the colony around 1800 coincided with sharp reductions of recruitment and growth rates of B. excelsa, suggesting the abandonment of indigenous management practices. A more recent recruitment pulse in the 20 th century, associated with unprecedented cycles of growth release and suppression, suggest a new management phase involving non-indigenous practices. Our findings suggest that humans have historically shaped nut tree population dynamics across the Amazon, and allude to the loss of ancient management knowledge with the collapse of pre-Columbian societies. / Desde o momento em que os seres humanos chegaram à região amazônica, pelo menos a 12 mil anos, começaram a manejar a floresta, em um processo de domesticação de longo prazo. Mas com o colapso demográfico indígena após 1492, essa antiga relação entre humanos e florestas pode ter sido parcialmente perdida. Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. (Lecythidaceae) é uma árvore icônica que domina vastas áreas da floresta amazônica e conhecida por ser usada, manejada e domesticada por humanos desde antes da chegada europeia na Amazônia. Considerando a íntima relação histórica entre os seres humanos e a castanha da Amazônia, ainda não está claro se a dinâmica das populações a longo prazo dessa espécie dentro da floresta foi conduzida por práticas de manejo e se essa interação mudou após o colapso das sociedades pré-coloniais. Aqui, reconstruímos mais de 300 anos da dinâmica populacional de um castanhal na Amazônia Central e relacionamos com a história humana nessa região. Para isso, combinamos as análises de anéis de crescimento que podem revelar o modo como as taxas de recrutamento e crescimento das árvores mudaram ao longo do tempo, com informações históricas sobre os principais fatos políticos e econômicos que podem ter impactado a vida de indígenas e colonos. Nossos resultados revelam que a intensificação do domínio político sobre a colônia em torno de 1800 coincidiu com fortes reduções de recrutamento e taxas de crescimento de B. excelsa, sugerindo o abandono das práticas de manejo indígena. Um pulso de recrutamento mais recente no século 20, associado a ciclos sem precedentes de liberação e supressão de crescimento, sugerem uma nova fase de gerenciamento envolvendo práticas não-indígenas. Nossas descobertas sugerem que os seres humanos têm historicamente dado forma a dinâmica da população de castanheiras, e aludem à perda do antigo conhecimento de manejo florestal com o colapso das sociedades pré-colombianas.

Imperial Europes relationship with the tropical world was characterized by intrigue and fascination combined with a fear of difference. This combined intrigue and fear developed over time into a set of stereotypes and myths about the tropics, which by the 19th century had solidified into a powerful discourse historian David Arnold calls tropicality. As Europes interaction with the tropical world increased and its need for tropical resources grew, tropicality became a powerful tool for legitimizing European interference in and exploitation of the tropics. Embedded in the language of science and the promise of progress, it reaffirmed European superiority and its necessary role as the bearer of civilization for the tropical world. <p>Perhaps the most powerful characteristic of tropicality was its inherent ambivalence. The Amazon basin has been a particularly important source for the creation and maintenance of these stereotypes about the tropical world. Reinvented by Alexander von Humboldt as an exotic paradise at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Amazon basin continued throughout the century to inspire commentary, exploration, and exploitation from abroad. As contact with the Amazon increased, ideas about the tropics began to change. What once was thought of as a pristine paradise became perceived as sinister, diseased, and savage. By the end of the nineteenth century, the tropical world, its people and nature, was considered to be an obstacle to civilization, and its very ability to become civilized began to be questioned.<p>Rubber, an increasingly important and lucrative imperial resource at the end of the nineteenth century, brought people from around the world to the Amazon basin. This resulted in the creation of a contact zone of different peoples, cultures, and idea, which was important for the moulding and maintenance of tropical stereotypes and myths. This was especially the case in the Putumayo, a border zone between modern day Colombia and Peru, where the brutal treatment of workers and the promise of civilization clashed. Through an exploration of travel diaries, newspapers, parliamentary papers, and other works about the tropics and rubber, this thesis argues that the manner in which rubber and its environment were depicted legitimized its control and exploitation from the outside. Couched in the rhetoric of civilization, tropicality helped justify the exploitation of rubber, the environment in which it grew, and the peoples that lived there.

Imperial Europes relationship with the tropical world was characterized by intrigue and fascination combined with a fear of difference. This combined intrigue and fear developed over time into a set of stereotypes and myths about the tropics, which by the 19th century had solidified into a powerful discourse historian David Arnold calls tropicality. As Europes interaction with the tropical world increased and its need for tropical resources grew, tropicality became a powerful tool for legitimizing European interference in and exploitation of the tropics. Embedded in the language of science and the promise of progress, it reaffirmed European superiority and its necessary role as the bearer of civilization for the tropical world. <p>Perhaps the most powerful characteristic of tropicality was its inherent ambivalence. The Amazon basin has been a particularly important source for the creation and maintenance of these stereotypes about the tropical world. Reinvented by Alexander von Humboldt as an exotic paradise at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Amazon basin continued throughout the century to inspire commentary, exploration, and exploitation from abroad. As contact with the Amazon increased, ideas about the tropics began to change. What once was thought of as a pristine paradise became perceived as sinister, diseased, and savage. By the end of the nineteenth century, the tropical world, its people and nature, was considered to be an obstacle to civilization, and its very ability to become civilized began to be questioned.<p>Rubber, an increasingly important and lucrative imperial resource at the end of the nineteenth century, brought people from around the world to the Amazon basin. This resulted in the creation of a contact zone of different peoples, cultures, and idea, which was important for the moulding and maintenance of tropical stereotypes and myths. This was especially the case in the Putumayo, a border zone between modern day Colombia and Peru, where the brutal treatment of workers and the promise of civilization clashed. Through an exploration of travel diaries, newspapers, parliamentary papers, and other works about the tropics and rubber, this thesis argues that the manner in which rubber and its environment were depicted legitimized its control and exploitation from the outside. Couched in the rhetoric of civilization, tropicality helped justify the exploitation of rubber, the environment in which it grew, and the peoples that lived there.

In this dissertation, I address the distribution and conservation of the Amazonian avifauna at several different scales. In Chapter 1, I looked at how the spatial bias in ornithological collections affects our understanding of the patterns of diversity in Amazonia. I showed that Amazonia is massively under-collected, that biological collection sites cluster around points of access, and that the richness at collection localities is higher than would be expected at random. This greater richness in collected areas was associated with a higher proportion of species with small geographical ranges as compared to uncollected areas. These small range species are relevant for conservation, as they are especially prone to extinction. I concluded that the richness of the uncollected areas of Amazonia is seriously underestimated, and that current knowledge gaps preclude accurate selection of areas for conservation in Amazonia. With this in mind, I modeled the impacts of continued deforestation on the Amazonian endemic avifauna. To overcome knowledge gaps, I complemented bird range maps with a "bird-ecoregions." I identified several taxa and bird-ecoregions likely to face great threat in the near future, most of them associated with riverine habitats. To evaluate these predictions, I conducted a detailed study on two riverine species: the Rio Branco Antbird (Cercomacra carbonaria) and the Hoary-throated Spinetail (Synallaxis kollari). Both are threatened and endemic to the gallery forests of Roraima, Brazil. I predicted that both would lose critical habitat in the near future. I concluded that neither is categorized correctly in by The World Conservation Union and recommend the down-listing of the Rio-Branco-Antbird and the up-listing of the Hoary-throated Spinetail. I also explored the importance of indigenous reserves for the conservation of both species and emphasized the need for greater involvement of conservation biologists in the social issues related to their study organisms. / Dissertation

This ethnographic account focuses on the conceptions and practices of movement, as narrated by the Makushi people who live along the triple frontier of southern Guyana. The journeys - individual experiences, in particular of women – depict visits to other Makushi communities, to their neighbours and cities in Guyana, Brazil and Venezuela. The travelogues disclose Makushi premises on knowledge and its acquisition: gender, age, temporality and alterity. Exploring these concepts in practice, the ethnography points out the value the Makushi attribute to their encounters with others, situations in which risk and unpredictability are creatively incorporated as part of their sociality.

This dissertation addresses the intersection of rhetoric and material exchange in the construction of political alliance and conflict between the Waraos indigenous population and the non-indigenous institutions and political actors in the Orinoco Delta, Venezuela. It deals with the discursive and material strategies used to construct political reality at the moment of the emergence of one of the so-called new South American left wing populist governments (Hugo Chavez presidency since 1998). These historical circumstances present an opportunity to open a discussion bringing together the recent developments of discourse-centered approaches to culture, language ideologies, and the most classical theories on material exchange. This research's aim is to understand how multiple sign systems (in this case language and material gifts) interact, contradict, and support each other. In sum, this dissertation uses the advances of discourse-centered approaches to culture and the anthropological theories of exchange to understand how language and gift giving has shaped history and political imagination in the Orinoco Delta and Venezuela.