Archaeological studies of early civilizations in southwestern Asia concentrate on the evolution of urbanism and the state, and generally assume that cities were the foci of complex societies. However, some early civilizations may represent largely extinct forms of complex, but essentially rural, society. Archaeological concepts of urbanism and urbanization are reviewed and critiqued. Rural communities are defined as agriculturally self-sufficient, while cities have populations too large for independent agricultural subsistence. Ethnographic and historical data are used to propose size classifications for ancient "urban" and "rural" settlements in Mesopotamia and the southern Levant. Survey data show that Mesopotamia is characterized aptly as a "Heartland of Cities," in which urban centers restructured regional settlement systems. The southern Levant is reconsidered as a "Heartland of Villages," in which Bronze Age populations grew, and social complexity developed, primarily in the countryside with little urban influence. The nature of this "rural complexity" is illuminated by excavated data from Tell el-Hayyat and Tell Abu en-Niᶜaj in the Jordan Valley. Niᶜaj suggests the importance of sedentary rural agriculture during the otherwise "pastoralized" Early Bronze IV Period. Middle Bronze II temples at Hayyat, a diminutive village site, exemplify social institutions normally interpreted as "urban" in distinctly rural settings. Neutron activation analysis is used to investigate rural pottery manufacture and exchange in the Jordan Valley. A brief excursus proposes a means of distinguishing trace element signatures of clays from those of non-clay inclusions in archaeological ceramics. This revised method reveals that some villages specialized in fine ware production during the absence of towns in Early Bronze IV, and that fine ware production continued in villages despite the reappearance of towns in Middle Bronze II. Thus, economic and social differentiation had characteristically rural manifestations, and Bronze Age society in the southern Levant should be reconsidered as a distinct and provocative case of "rural complexity" in a "Heartland of Villages."

<p> Was Jesus multilingual? Which languages did he speak? What does the linguistic composition and sociolinguistic situation of first-century Palestine look like? On what occasions were Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin spoken in that ancient community? These questions have biblical scholars searching for answers since the sixteenth century, proposing different opinions on the issues related to these questions. Answers to these questions significantly influence our understanding of the various sociolinguistic elements and facets of early Christianity, the early church, and the text of the New Testament. But those answers depend upon our depiction of the multifarious sociolinguistic dynamics that compose the speech community of ancient Palestine, which include its historical linguistic shifts under different military regimes, its geographical linguistic landscape, the social functions of the languages in its linguistic repertoire, and the specific types of social contexts where those languages were used. Using a sociolinguistic model, this study attempts to paint a portrait of the sociolinguistic situation of ancient Palestine, consequently providing answers to these questions.</p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The late third millennium B.C. in Israel until recently was known by funerary deposits only. At Jebel Qaᶜaqir, the domestic and funerary remains provide an unprecedented assemblage and permit a reassessment of Early Bronze IV society and events culminating in the collapse of the Early Bronze III urban centers. Historically, pottery studies have focused on chronological issues. After reviewing the history of ceramic analysis in Israel for the past one hundred years, the Jebel Qaᶜaqir collection is presented. Variation in the manufacturing technique and incised patterns are described in detail for the purpose of identifying the work of individual potters. Ethnoarchaeological research of pottery production, especially the Filipino potters of Paradijon, provide the model for this analysis. The nature of the late third millennium B.C. pastoral nomadic society is examined in terms of subsistence strategies and settlement distribution. Inferences regarding social organization drawn from mortuary practices, settlement types and organization of labor challenge the idea that an egalitarian society persisted. Finally, these results provide a new perspective on the events following the collapse of the third millennium B.C. urban centers and the succeeding era of a non-sedentary lifestyle in Israel. The nomadic pastoralists are considered in their regional setting as an integral, indigenous part of Early Bronze Age society. Rather than viewing the pastoralists as a new phenomenon, they are considered as an ever-present characteristic of the urban hinterland.

(M.A. (Bybelse Argeologie))

(M.A. (Bybelse Argeologie))

The availability of water and subsequent systems that developed around it played an important role throughout biblical lands and their surroundings. Water’s contribution spanned across all facets of life, times of peace and war, affecting the elite and the poor. The research focuses on the different aspects of water, both in its natural and anthropogenic distribution. The combination of archaeology, anthropology, and geography explores the following questions: What can be learnt from contemporary civilisations? What social implications did water systems have on ancient Palestine’s society? Did the extent of the impact lessen once water was secured? The multidisciplinary approach aids in understanding the effect of water availability the social structures required for the creation, use, and maintenance of the different water systems. Water was, at first, a basic need for survival in rural areas, turning into a magnificent show of power of the ruling elite of ancient Palestine. / Biblical and Ancient Studies / M.A. (Biblical Archaeology)

Includes bibliographical references / Pages not numbered / Music has formed a part of human life as far back as demonstrable. Music existed long before musical instruments made their appearance. The examination of textual evidence read in conjunction with the available archaeologic evidence from the time and area clearly demonstrates which musical instruments were available and the instances they were used at. It clearly points to the lyre as the primary proponent of the musical culture of the time with regards to melodic music. This is confirmed from what we learn from the ancient tuning tablets. There thus is a direct demonstrable connection between the instrument and the theory of the time. Work done on the musical elements of the cantillation marks of the Hebrew Bible comfortably fits into this framework and appears to be a direct influence on the manner in which the Psalms were sung and composed. A combination of literary, archaeological and musical sources can thus be used within a literary and historical approach to demonstrate the availability of musical instruments in AIP, the manner in which tonality was recorded and its influence on the development of the Psalms. / Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern Studies / M.A. (Biblical Archaeology)