Archaeological studies of early civilizations in southwestern Asia concentrate on the evolution of urbanism and the state, and generally assume that cities were the foci of complex societies. However, some early civilizations may represent largely extinct forms of complex, but essentially rural, society. Archaeological concepts of urbanism and urbanization are reviewed and critiqued. Rural communities are defined as agriculturally self-sufficient, while cities have populations too large for independent agricultural subsistence. Ethnographic and historical data are used to propose size classifications for ancient "urban" and "rural" settlements in Mesopotamia and the southern Levant. Survey data show that Mesopotamia is characterized aptly as a "Heartland of Cities," in which urban centers restructured regional settlement systems. The southern Levant is reconsidered as a "Heartland of Villages," in which Bronze Age populations grew, and social complexity developed, primarily in the countryside with little urban influence. The nature of this "rural complexity" is illuminated by excavated data from Tell el-Hayyat and Tell Abu en-Niᶜaj in the Jordan Valley. Niᶜaj suggests the importance of sedentary rural agriculture during the otherwise "pastoralized" Early Bronze IV Period. Middle Bronze II temples at Hayyat, a diminutive village site, exemplify social institutions normally interpreted as "urban" in distinctly rural settings. Neutron activation analysis is used to investigate rural pottery manufacture and exchange in the Jordan Valley. A brief excursus proposes a means of distinguishing trace element signatures of clays from those of non-clay inclusions in archaeological ceramics. This revised method reveals that some villages specialized in fine ware production during the absence of towns in Early Bronze IV, and that fine ware production continued in villages despite the reappearance of towns in Middle Bronze II. Thus, economic and social differentiation had characteristically rural manifestations, and Bronze Age society in the southern Levant should be reconsidered as a distinct and provocative case of "rural complexity" in a "Heartland of Villages."

In the earlier part of this century, archaeology was imported into biblical studies as a tool to demonstrate the historical accuracy of the Bible. Methodological differences, however, prevented very meaningful dialogue and eventually the two disciplines drifted apart. Archaeology has matured in the intervening years and now can enter a dialogue with biblical studies as an independent discipline. While biblical studies and archaeology work with different sets of data and approach the same subject with different questions, the disciplines can meaningfully intersect when they are interpreted through the perspective of anthropology of religion. Anthropology, with its study of the nature of religion and ritual, provides a matrix into which archaeology and biblical studies can place their respective data and find an interpretive framework. This dissertation uses Josiah's reforms (2 Kings 23) as a test case to bring archaeology and biblical studies into dialogue. The text lists activities and artifacts that were objects of Josiah's reform. The first three chapters deal with biblical and general anthropological data. Chapters four and five focus specifically on bamot and goddess worship. Chapter six discusses an array of artifacts: worship of the heavenly bodies, cult functionaries, child sacrifice, standing stones, the occult, and figurines. Each section examines the biblical data, anthropological theory, and any artifactual evidence that might reflect cultic practices. The purpose has been not to offer a comprehensive or exhaustive list of artifacts, but to show the types of objects that attracted Josiah's attention.

This dissertation deals with the religious practices of the settlers in the central highlands of Palestine, during the pre-monarchic period (ca 1200-1000 BCE; the so-called ‘period of the Judges’), as revealed by archaeology (cultic artifacts and sites, as well as burial customs and practices). The religious practices of the settlers have been shown to reflect continuity with, and were practically indistinguishable from, those of the Late Bronze Canaanite cult, suggesting that the majority of the settlers were originally Canaanites, most probably from the coastal city-states (ie, the religious practices have been used as an ‘ethnic marker’). It has also been proposed that one of the motivating factors for the migration of people from the coastal region to the central highlands was a fairly dramatic climatic shift, one which resulted in the area becoming increasingly and significantly drier from the late 13th century BCE until about 900 BCE. / Thesis (M.A. (Biblical Archaelogy))

This dissertation deals with the religious practices of the settlers in the central highlands of Palestine, during the pre-monarchic period (ca 1200-1000 BCE; the so-called ‘period of the Judges’), as revealed by archaeology (cultic artifacts and sites, as well as burial customs and practices). The religious practices of the settlers have been shown to reflect continuity with, and were practically indistinguishable from, those of the Late Bronze Canaanite cult, suggesting that the majority of the settlers were originally Canaanites, most probably from the coastal city-states (ie, the religious practices have been used as an ‘ethnic marker’). It has also been proposed that one of the motivating factors for the migration of people from the coastal region to the central highlands was a fairly dramatic climatic shift, one which resulted in the area becoming increasingly and significantly drier from the late 13th century BCE until about 900 BCE. / Thesis (M.A. (Biblical Archaelogy))

Thesis (DTh)--Stellenbosch University, 2000 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Apart from the literature of Ancient Israel itself, and contemporary literature from the ancient Near East, archaeological data continue to be an important source for the historian seeking to elucidate a history of ancient Israel or certain aspects of that history. Notwithstanding certain developments in the field of Biblical scholarship as well as archaeology, the discipline of Biblical archaeology continues to survive as the framework in which these two disciplines join forces, and, quite possibly, may enter into the historical discourse in meaningful dialogue with each other. The historical discourse of course, is multidimensional, that is to say, the insights deriving from a diversity of methodological approaches are being integrated and related to each other in order to gain an improved understanding of the Old Testament (or certain aspects thereof), and the cultural-historical context from which the Old Testament came to be. Of decisive importance for Biblical archaeology is the foundation on which this dialogue takes place, after all, the basis on which the dialogue takes place has a determining influence on the collection and interpretation of archaeological data; and the use of them, similarly, on the understanding and interpretation of the Bible. The title of this dissertation suffices to indicate that the focus is on burial stories and burial customs in Palestine during the Iron Age. The dissertation then proceeds to show how a certain aspect of Old Testament views of death and dying, that is the coherence between posterity (the living) and the ancestors (those who have died) - which, among other things surface in the genealogical presentation of burial stories - can be understood from the burial customs in Syro-Palestine. In that respect the archaeological data contributes to an understanding of the death notices (presenting themselves as genealogical material in family burial stories) within the culturalhistorical milieu in which they appear. The coherence between religious documents and their cultural embeddedness contributes to a bettter understanding of the theological significance of the relevant texts. In addition to the fact that archaeology expands the database of historical discourse, important aspects of the Old Testament world of experience and historical context come to the fore that have so far been ignored in this discipline. An important aspect of burial customs, in terms of both the archaeological record (family graves) and the literary legacy of Ancient Israel (death notices and genealogies in the Old Testament) is the continuing relationship between the preceeding generations (the ancestors that have passed on) and the posterity (the community of those still living). The connection established in family burial stories between genealogical material (death notices) and the family burial customs highlights an important perspective, that is, the relation between the preceeding generations and the community still living as an element of the expectation of the future, or the future-directedness of Ancient Israel. The expectation of the future, with specific reference to the grave, is defined in terms of continuity in the generational community of familial relations. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Naas die literatuur van Ou Israel self, sowel as kontemporere literatuur uit die ou Nabye Ooste, bly argeologiese data In belangrike bron tot beskikking van die historikus wat In geskiedenis van Ou Israel of sekere aspekte daarvan wil verduidelik. Nieteenstaande sekere verwikkelinge op die gebied van die Bybelwetenskap aan die een kant, en van die Argeologie aan die ander kant, bly die dissipline Bybelse argeologie voortleef as die kader waar die twee dissiplines by mekaar aansluit, en bes moontlik tot In sinvolle dialoog met mekaar kan toetree in In historiese diskoers. Die historiese diskoers is uit die aard van die saak multidimensioneel van aard, dit wil se die insigte vanuit In verskeidenheid metodologiese benaderings word geintegreer en in verband tot mekaar gestel ten einde In beter begrip van die Ou Testament (of sekere aspekte daarvan) en die kultuur-historiese milieu - van waaruit die Ou Testament ontstaan het - te verkry. Van deurslaggewende belang vir die Bybelse argeologie is die basis waarop hierdie dialoog plaasvind. Die basis waarop die dialoog plaasvind, het immers In bepalende invloed op die versameling en interpretasie van argeologiese data; en die gebruik daarvan vir die verstaan en interpretasie van die Bybel. Die titel van die proefskrif dui reeds aan dat daar gefokus word op grafvertellinge en grafgebruike gedurende die Ystertyd in Palestina. Vervolgens word aangedui hoe In bepaalde aspek van die Ou-Testamentiese sieninge oor die dood, naamlik die samehang tussen die nageslag (lewendes) en die voorgeslag (ontslapenes) - wat onder meer ter sprake kom in die genealogiese aanbieding van die grafvertellinge - vanuit grafgebruike in Siro-Palestina verstaan kan word. In die opsig dra argeologiese gegewens daartoe by om die doodsberigte (wat by wyse van genealogiese materiaal in die familiegrafvertellinge na vore tree) te verstaan binne die kultuurhistoriese milieu waarin dit voorkom. Die samehang tussen religieuse dokumente en die kulturele bedding daarvan dra daartoe by dat ons die teologiese betekenis van die tekste wat ter sprake kom, beter kan verstaan. Afgesien van die feit dat die argeologie die databasis van die historiese diskoers verbreed, tree belangrike aspekte van die Ou-Testamentiese leefwereld of historiese milieu na vore wat grootliks geignoreer is in die vakgebied. 'n Belangrike aspek in doodsgebruike, beide wat betref die argeologiese rekord (familiegrafte) sowel as die literere nalatenskap van Ou Israel (doodsberigte en geslagsregisters in die Ou Testament), is die verbondenheid wat bly voortbestaan het tussen die voorgeslagte (ontslape voorvaders) en die nageslagte (nog lewende gemeenskap). Die verband wat gele word in die familiegrafvertellinge tussen genealogiese materiaal (doodsberigte) en die familiegraf bring 'n belangrike perspektief na vore, naamlik die verbondenheid tussen die voorgeslagte en die nog lewende gemeenskap as 'n element van die toekomsverwagting of toekomsgerigtheid van Ou Israel. Die toekomsverwagting word, met spesifieke verwysing na die graf, gedefinieer in terme van kontinurteit in familiale verband.

This thesis is a demographic analysis of Late Bronze Age Canaan (ca. 1550/1500-1200/1150 BCE), undertaken through the use of archaeological and anthropological data. The purpose is to establish estimates for the settlement population, nomadic population, nuclear family size, house size, sex ratio, and life expectancy of the people of Canaan during the Late Bronze Age. Previous studies have not addressed these issues in detail, nor had data from the entire scope of Canaan been considered, nor had a precise methodology been developed or used for estimating specific settlement populations and nomadic populations for Canaan during the Late Bronze Age. Thus, additional aspects of the thesis include the development and use of a new methodology for estimating ancient populations and a database of all of the Late Bronze Age sites in Canaan—both archaeological and textual. To accomplish these goals, the thesis uses archaeological data from excavations and surveys, texts from the Late Bronze Age, human skeletal remains from Late Bronze Age burials, demographic and ethnographic studies of various types of nomads, and methods, techniques, and observations from previous relevant studies. The primary objectives are to 1) obtain individual settlement, nomadic, and total population estimates for Canaan in the Late Bronze Age that are as accurate as possible based on the currently available data, along with additional demographic estimates of life expectancy and sex ratio, 2) propose a new methodology for estimating settlement populations in the ancient world, 3) present a catalogue and map of all of the sites in Canaan that were inhabited during the Late Bronze Age, 4) illuminate demographic trends during the Late Bronze Age in Canaan. The implications of the results may lead to a modified demographic view of Canaan and its sub-regions during the Late Bronze Age. / Old Testament & Ancient Near Eastern Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Biblical Archaeology)

Includes bibliographical references / Pages not numbered / Music has formed a part of human life as far back as demonstrable. Music existed long before musical instruments made their appearance. The examination of textual evidence read in conjunction with the available archaeologic evidence from the time and area clearly demonstrates which musical instruments were available and the instances they were used at. It clearly points to the lyre as the primary proponent of the musical culture of the time with regards to melodic music. This is confirmed from what we learn from the ancient tuning tablets. There thus is a direct demonstrable connection between the instrument and the theory of the time. Work done on the musical elements of the cantillation marks of the Hebrew Bible comfortably fits into this framework and appears to be a direct influence on the manner in which the Psalms were sung and composed. A combination of literary, archaeological and musical sources can thus be used within a literary and historical approach to demonstrate the availability of musical instruments in AIP, the manner in which tonality was recorded and its influence on the development of the Psalms. / Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern Studies / M.A. (Biblical Archaeology)

This thesis is a demographic analysis of Late Bronze Age Canaan (ca. 1550/1500-1200/1150 BCE), undertaken through the use of archaeological and anthropological data. The purpose is to establish estimates for the settlement population, nomadic population, nuclear family size, house size, sex ratio, and life expectancy of the people of Canaan during the Late Bronze Age. Previous studies have not addressed these issues in detail, nor had data from the entire scope of Canaan been considered, nor had a precise methodology been developed or used for estimating specific settlement populations and nomadic populations for Canaan during the Late Bronze Age. Thus, additional aspects of the thesis include the development and use of a new methodology for estimating ancient populations and a database of all of the Late Bronze Age sites in Canaan—both archaeological and textual. To accomplish these goals, the thesis uses archaeological data from excavations and surveys, texts from the Late Bronze Age, human skeletal remains from Late Bronze Age burials, demographic and ethnographic studies of various types of nomads, and methods, techniques, and observations from previous relevant studies. The primary objectives are to 1) obtain individual settlement, nomadic, and total population estimates for Canaan in the Late Bronze Age that are as accurate as possible based on the currently available data, along with additional demographic estimates of life expectancy and sex ratio, 2) propose a new methodology for estimating settlement populations in the ancient world, 3) present a catalogue and map of all of the sites in Canaan that were inhabited during the Late Bronze Age, 4) illuminate demographic trends during the Late Bronze Age in Canaan. The implications of the results may lead to a modified demographic view of Canaan and its sub-regions during the Late Bronze Age. / Biblical and Ancient Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Biblical Archaeology)