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Two assemblages of chronologically contemporary medieval iron smithing slags, collected from the southern Levantine archaeological sites of Tell Dhiban and the Armenian Garden, have been studied archaeometrically. There is a paucity of scientifically orientated examinations of smithing slags when compared to smelting slags, and there have been very few previous studies of smithing slags from this geographical region, and none with the particular age range of the specimens from these sites; as such this study provides a first-look investigation of these materials. An extensive collection of both chemical analysis results and microscopic images has been compiled, with the aim of broadening the general body of knowledge with regards to this type of material and providing initial baseline data for these two sites. The results of this investigation have revealed that the slags from these two sites are unusual in terms of both chemical composition and microstructure when compared to the smithing slag classification framework proposed by Serneels and Perret (2003). An alternative analytical method has been evaluated, where chemical compositions are determined as elements rather than simple oxides; this allows the investigation of variations in stoichiometries, which are relevant to redox chemistry and can provide valuable additional information regarding this material. These results can be converted from elements to simple oxides to allow comparison to other studies. A simple and repeatable procedure for the assessment of the bulk chemical composition of slag samples has been proposed and tested, together with a software application for phase proportion determination using backscatter electron images, which is also combined with chemical analyses for individual phase composition determination. The methods trialled during this study have been thoroughly evaluated and compared to other more conventional methods, and a number of recommendations for improvements and for future research have been proposed. All of the smithing slag specimens examined for this study exhibit remarkably similar elemental compositions, microstructures and trends in variability; suggesting that a similar range of iron working practices were being undertaken at both sites. Furthermore both of these assemblages exhibit two different slag compositional types: those with an elevated calcium content, and those predominantly composed of iron oxides. These two slag types are probably related to two differing smithing techniques being practised together, and the high calcium content specimens were likely formed as a result of the use of calcareous fluxes rather than the more commonly observed siliceous fluxes. Additionally, the uniformity and well preserved nature of the smaller specimens were highlighted, revealing their potential as diagnostic materials. This study has characterised the local nature of iron smithing for these two sites during the medieval period, which appears to be markedly different to the methods assumed to be widespread, due to their prevalence in western Europe.

To date, no systematic study of the military equipment from the celebrated conflict sites of the Bella Judaica has been offered. Based on a large assemblage of military equipment that originated from over 70 sites throughout Palestine a typological database of the equipment was formed, the majority of which is hitherto unpublished. The arid conditions of the eastern sectors of Palestine have contributed to an excellent preservation of equipment made of perishable materials. Additionally, rare discoveries like the panoply of a Roman legionary enabled us to illustrate the images of the Roman soldiers and their opponents in the Early Roman east. But this study draws beyond the narrow typological approach. The militaria of Roman Palestine is examined against its contextual background. This corpus enriches the archaeology of conflict, as the analysis of the material yielded indications for the tactics and types of weapons employ ed, among which are remnants of unique siege tools. The exploration of the spatial distribution of the militaria provided new data concerning the course of battles and revealed the identity of the participating forces and provides a platform for critical discussion about the credibility of historical sources. By reviewing the wider historical and social contexts through the spectacles of military equipment we obtain now a tool which extends and improves our understanding of the big picture, namely how the interrelations between the struggling societies were mediated and moulded by social, political and economic conditions and practices. Militaria appears to be a useful indicator for the status of warriors within their military society and in the eyes of the civil society which is manifested in the rabbinic literature. It further sheds light upon production and technological aspects, which appear to echo the complex Romano-Jewish interrelations and the resistance of the oppressed side to the cultural Romanisation process.

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This thesis examines how our picture of the Epipalaeolithic of the southern Levant has been structured, what its evidential base is and how it has gained authority. Hitherto, research has focused on describing variability in microliths, the type-fossil of the period, in terms of archaeological cultures using typology. Narrative analysis was used in the first part of this thesis to explore the work of three main researchers in the field. This has shown that narrative strategies are indeed employed in archaeological texts to describe lithic and other data creating a picture of the period that relies substantially on ideas 'imported' from modern attitudes to the region and the relations of people within it. The techniques of narrative are used to pull together the disparate and conflicting data we work with into a unity of significance, embodying authority and plausibility. In the second part of the thesis, a study of 12 chipped stone assemblages from the Negev and southern Jordan was undertaken. Attribute analysis was used to explore variability within and between sites. This has revealed a complex and cross-cutting pattern of personal or local decisions taken within a context of wider norms, which has created very specific tool forms at individual sites. A picture of context dependent variability was discovered that has not been reflected in the traditional typological methods. This offers new ways of seeing the relationships between social organisations and material culture.

This thesis aims to reassess the principal concepts used by archaeologists in their attempts to interpret the late Iron Age archaeology of southern Israel and Jordan. This study focuses in particular on the archaeological remains that have traditionally been associated with the 'Edomites' mentioned in the Old Testament. This reassessment involves examining two inter-related themes. The first is largely historiographical, the aim being to highlight the socio-political and intellectual contexts in which the study of the 'Edomites' became an important discourse. This is achieved by contextualising both the beginnings of south Levantine Iron Age archaeology as a whole and the archaeological investigation of the 'Edomites', as well as the study of the historical sources that mention Edom' and the 'Edomites'. The second theme concerns the material culture used by archaeologists to address questions regarding the 'Edomites', such as the areas they spread to, whether they spread by migration, invasion, or trade, and the nature of their kingdom and religion. Firstly, the theoretical underpinnings of these archaeological approaches is reassessed. Building on that, an analysis of what is traditionally interpreted as 'Edomite' pottery - material that has been commonly used to address the questions posed above - is presented. This analysis focuses on the ways in which this type of pottery was used, and where possible, the contexts in which it was deposited/found, thus highlighting how people in the past used it as part of specific social practices. The results demonstrate that the pattern of material culture usually thought to underpin traditional understandings of 'Edomite' archaeology is actually quite varied and that 'Edomite' ethnicity may not be the best explanation for such diversity. Following the critique of the discourse of 'Edomite' archaeology, a number of alternative ways in which the late Iron Age material culture of the southern Levant might be understood are suggested. These alternatives focus on theories of practice, appropriation, and foodways.

The thesis argued for here is that a social-scientific, poetics, and comparative analysis reveals that all the religious phenomena listed in Deuteronomy 1 8.10-11 are bound together in a conceptual unity. The religious practitioners and practices enumerated properly portray various elements characteristic of ANE religious beliefs in conflict with an emerging, world-constructing, and ideologically explicit Yahwistic vision of reality. Furthermore, Deuteronomy presents the Yahwistic prophet, the nābi’ as the preeminent symbol of Yahwistic reality, which seeks to replace all other notions of reality in the Israelite community. This study makes contributions to an interdisciplinary approach to biblical interpretation by using a combination of social-scientific criticism, poetics literary analysis, and comparative analysis of ANE religions and ethnographic field studies. Special significance is given to Meir Sternberg's poetics analysis, Peter Berger's theory of world-construction, Michael Carrither's theory of intersubjectivity, and Douglas Davies' theory of clusters of belief This study also makes contributions to the understanding of the unique role of the Yahwistic prophet as preeminent cultural symbol in Israelite society.

The subject of Crusader-period Transjordan has still not been analyzed in depth by scholars. Nevertheless, this region, the Lordship of Crac and Montreal of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, is usually assumed to have had more or less the sole function of serving as the southeastern frontier of the kingdom, consisting essentially of a series of fortified points defending a border. This image of a series of castles in a largely deserted border area arises from several factors: the relative scarcity of textual sources available for 12th-century Transjordan, those that survive being largely focused on its military aspects; the scarcity of archaeological excavations at 12th-century sites, including the important castles of Karak and Shawbak; the fact that these two castles, being relatively well preserved, have attracted more scholarly interest than any other sites; and the lack of archaeological comparanda for the region, due to the only very recent development of interest of archaeologists in excavating medieval sites. The goal of the research exposed here is therefore to combine all available sources, including updated results from archaeological projects, in order to present a picture of settlement in Crusader Transjordan that is as complete as possible. A case study for Petra and the Jabal Shara is included in this work, since this area was intensely settled in the 12th century and currently offers new evidence from recent archaeological excavations. The conclusions from this research have provided information on the dynamics, variety and timing of settlement in the region, on the importance of the various settlements, on socio-economic aspects, and on the significance of Transjordan for the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem. Finally, this study provides some archaeological tools for better identifying the 12th century in the Petra region, in particular through the more precise characterization of local ceramics and building techniques.

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