Thesis (doctoral)--Lund University, 1994. / Added t.p. with thesis statement inserted.

Thesis (doctoral)--Lund University, 1994. / Added t.p. with thesis statement inserted.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of North Carolina at Wilmington, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves: 31-34)

Thesis (PH.D.)--Michigan State University. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2008. / Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on Aug. 11, 2009) Includes bibliographical references. Also issued in print.

Les anhydrases carboniques (CA, CE. 4.2.1.1) sont des métalloenzymes de zinc, ubiquitaires, qui catalysent l'hydratation réversible du CO2, avec la formation de bicarbonate et de la libération d'un proton. Sur les 13 isoformes actifs présents chez l'homme, certains d'entre eux sont impliqués dans les processus pathologiques. Les CA sont connues depuis plus de 50 ans en tant que cibles thérapeutiques et certains inhibiteurs sont actuellement en phase clinique ou dans des études pré-cliniques pour le traitement du glaucome, de l'épilepsie et de cancer. Néanmoins, le manque de sélectivité contre les différents isoformes responsables des effets secondaires nécessite le développement de nouvelles stratégies. Le but de ce travail est de développer une nouvelle façon pour inhiber les CAs en tirant parti de l'interaction multivalente pour inhiber sélectivement et efficacement les isoformes de l'CA. En effet, les clusters multivalents représentent une classe émergente de composés pour l'inhibition d'enzymes. Cette stratégie a été développée récemment pour l'inhibition et l'activation d'CA, certaines études ayant démontré des améliorations dans la puissance d'inhibition et la sélectivité. Dans ce projet, différentes plateformes (peptides, nanoparticules de silice) multifonctionnels ont été revêtus de sulfonamides comme inhibiteurs de l'CA par bioconjugaison. L'effet d'inhibition et la spécificité de la multivalence ont été étudiés sur les isoformes CA. / Carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC. 4.2.1.1) are ubiquitous zinc metalloenzymes which catalyze the reversible hydration of CO2 with formation of bicarbonate and release of a proton. On the 13 active isoforms present in human, some of them are involved in pathological processes. CAs are known for more than 50 years as a therapeutic targets, and some inhibitors are currently in clinic or in (pre)clinical studies for the treatment of glaucoma, epilepsy and cancer. Nevertheless the lack of selectivity against the different isoforms responsible of side-effects requires the development of new strategies. The aim of this work is to develop a new way for CA inhibition by taking advantage of multivalent interaction to selectively and efficiently inhibit CA isoforms. Indeed, multivalent clusters represent an emerging class of compounds for enzymes inhibition. This strategy has been recently developed for CA inhibition and activation, some studies reporting improvements in inhibitory potency and selectivity. In this project, different platforms (peptides, polymers, silica nanoparticles) multifunctional were coated with sulfonamides as inhibitors of CA by bioconjugation. The inhibitory effect and specificity of the multivalency were studied isoforms CA.

Abstract Secretory carbonic anhydrase isoenzyme VI (CA VI) catalyses the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide (CO2 + H2O ↔ HCO3- + H+). Low concentrations of salivary CA VI are associated with high decayed, missing or filled teeth (DMFT) index scores and a high incidence of acid injury in the upper gastrointestinal tract plus lowered taste and smell perception. Two mechanisms of action for CA VI have been proposed: acid neutralisation and growth factor function. In the present study the distribution and catalytic properties of CA VI have been examined in order to further clarify its mechanisms of action and biological significance. CA VI was found to be present and secreted by the alveolar epithelium of the mammary gland, serous acinar cells of lingual von Ebner’s glands, serous demilune cells of posterior lingual mucous glands and serous cells of submucosal tracheobronchial glands. CA VI was also found in the serous cells in the tracheobronchial mucosal epithelium, taste pore, taste bud, base of the tracheobronchial cilia, bronchiolar Clara cells and enamel pellicle. An immunofluorometric assay showed that the mean concentration of CA VI in colostral milk was eight times higher than that in mature milk (35 mg/l vs. 4.5 mg/l). Stopped-flow spectroscopy measurements revealed that the dehydration activity of CA VI is moderate (maximum kcat = 3.0 × 105 · s-1). The finding that CA VI is a potent catalyst of acid neutralisation emphasizes the possible role of the pellicle bound CA VI in local neutralisation of the acidic metabolic products of dental biofilm. The function of CA VI in von Ebner’s glands’ saliva is likely taste stimuli modification via CA activity although other functions may exist. Its role in milk or respiratory tract mucus remains open, however, as these secretions do not have significant acid predispositions that would need enzymatic catalysis for removal.

Abstract The carbonic anhydrases (CAs) catalyze the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide. In mammals, there are 13 active isoenzymes, which clearly differ in their cell localisation, tissue distributions and functions. CA IX, a unique transmembrane member of the CA gene family, is a tumour-associated protein which is thought to be involved in malignant cell invasion, adhesion and the regulation of cell proliferation. The main focus in the present study was on elucidating the function and expression of CA IX in normal and malignant tissues, especially in the alimentary tract. The functional studies also included CA II, which is regarded as another important CA isoenzyme in the alimentary tract. CA IX immunostaining showed a decrease in the staining intensity of gastric adenomas with increasing dysplasia grade. Well differentiated carcinomas of the intestinal type showed expression comparable to that in the normal mucosa, while expression was decreased in the less differentiated tumours. CA IX deficiency (Car9-/-) genotype and C57/BL6 strain were the main factors which increased the susceptibility of CA IX deficient mice fed on either a normal or high-salt diet to histological abnormalities, including foveolar hyperplasia and glandular atrophy in the gastric body mucosa, while CA II deficiency was associated with only minor histological abnormalities. In a physiological analysis, CA IX played only a minor role in duodenal bicarbonate secretion (DBS), whereas absence of CA II in mice completely abolished the stimulatory effect of E-type prostaglandin 2 (PGE2) on duodenal alkalisation. The results demonstrate that CA IX expression is diminished in most gastric tumours. The variations observed in its expression support the concept that gastric adenomas and carcinomas do not emerge as progressive steps on a single pathway but may instead represent distinct entities with heterogenic genetic backgrounds. In the stomach, CA IX is mainly involved in the regulation of tissue morphogenesis in the body mucosa, while CA II has a major role in maintaining the gastroduodenal acid/base balance.

Acid rmne drainage (AMD) is a major pollution problem througbout the world, adversely affecting both surface and groundwaters. AMD is principally associated with the mining of sulphide ores. The most commonly associated minerals being sulphur, copper, zinc, silver, gold, lead and uranium. As conventional methods for removing heavy metals from wastewater are often prohibitively expensive, the implementation of biological processes for the removal of heavy metals has become a realistic practice. The objectives of this project was firstly to establish the effect of copper, lead and nickel, heavy metals commonly found in AMD waters, on the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which is an integral part of the carbon concentrating mechanism (CCM) and secondly, to determine the feasibility of using the alkalinity generated by Spindina for the precipitation of heavy metals from solution. Initially, batch flask experiments were performed and it was found that the algae were able to utilise the bicarbonate supplied in the medium, under CO, limiting conditions, through the induction of their CCM, resulting in the generation of carbonate. The effect of the inhibitors, acetazolamide (AZ) and ethoxyzolamide (EZ), were also investigated in order to determine the importance of carbonic anhydrase (CA) in inorganic carbon accumulation and photosynthesis. Results obtained were consistent with those observed in literature and it was found that at IOOf.LM AZ and EZ, complete inhibition of photosynthesis and carbonic anhydrase occurred, with no oxygen being evolved. The results obtained from the inhibitor experiments substantiate the findings that carbonic anhydrase is an important part of the CCM, and that the dehydration of bicarbonate to carbon dioxide and hydroxide ions, is in fact an enzymatic process regulated by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase and is essential for efficient photosynthesis. The effect of heavy metals on Spirulina was also investigated. Lead, copper and nickel were all found to cause a reduction in the synthesis of chlorophyll a, which resulted in a decrease in photosynthetic efficiency and eventually death of the culture. The morphology of the algae was also severely affected by heavy metals, with degradation and aJmost complete disintegration of the algal filaments occurring. Using the Wilbur-Anderson assay method, carbonic anhydrase activity was found to be lower in the experimental flasks containing heavy metals, than the control flasks, reducing the algae's ability to utilise the bicarbonate in solution for effective photosynthesis. The Wilbur-Anderson assay method did not prove to be a reliable method for measuring changes in enzyme activity as results were found to be erratic. Therefore attempts were made to use an oxygen electrode as an alternative method for determining the effects of various parameters on enzyme activity and photosynthesis, this proved to be more successful. Because of the toxic effects of heavy metals on Spirulina it was decided that the use of the biogenic alkalinity generated by the algae for the precipitation of heavy metals may be successfully employed as an alternative method for bioremediation and metal recovery. Carbonate reacts readily with metals, therefore the carbonate produced by this algal system was used for the precipitation of metals. It was possible to categorise the precipitation reactions observed into three groups, namely those metals which, a) precipitate as hydroxides, b) precipitate as carbonates generated from the dissociation of bicarbonate and c) metals which can only precipitate if there is free carbonate present in solution.

The enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) contributes to multiple physiological processes by catalysing the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide. However, regulation of CA activity in response to homeostatic challenges remains poorly understood. The objectives of this thesis were to investigate whether CA is transcriptionally regulated by cortisol in fish and whether post-translational modification (PTM) of CA occurs in fish. The results of an in vivo reporter assay used to investigate potential transcriptional regulation of zebrafish, Danio rerio, cytoplasmic CA (CAc) were inconsistent, and it remains unclear whether zebrafish CAc is regulated transcriptionally by cortisol. Phosphorylation of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, CAc was predicted from in silico analysis of the putative amino acid sequence and confirmed by Western analysis of phosphoprotein levels following in vitro incubation of CA, purified from trout gill, under conditions designed to potentiate endogenous kinases. Again using in vitro incubations designed to potentiate endogenous kinases and phosphatases, changes to the phosphorylation state of CAc were found to modulate its enzymatic properties. These findings suggest that CA activity may be regulated by signalling pathways that activate cellular protein kinases, and future work should focus on identifying these pathways.

Les activités anthropiques ont considérablement augmenté la quantité de gaz à effet de serre (GES) dans l'atmosphère et sont un contributeur majeur au réchauffement climatique. Le dioxyde de carbone (CO₂) est considéré le principal gaz à effet de serre qui contribue largement aux changements climatiques. Diverses technologies sont explorées à travers le monde pour la capture et la séquestration du CO₂. Les solutions à base d'amines sont considérées des solvants efficaces, mais ils sont énergivores et ont des impacts négatifs sur l'environnement. L'absorption du CO₂ à l'aide de l'enzyme anhydrase carbonique (AC) comme catalyseur (libre en solution ou immobilisé) est une technologie prometteuse qui offre une sélectivité et une efficacité élevées pour la capture du CO₂, tout en utilisant des solvants non toxiques et moins énergivores. L'AC est un biocatalyseur bien connu, doté d'une aptitude extraordinaire à absorber les molécules de CO₂ (grâce à son énorme constante catalytique (turnover number, TON)), ce qui lui confère une très grande capacité à stimuler l'hydratation du CO₂. L'immobilisation de l'AC sur des surfaces solides améliore la stabilité et la réutilisation de l'enzyme, en permettant une séparation facile des produits de la réaction sans la contamination du biocatalyseur. Dans ce contexte, cette thèse se concentre sur l'étude de l'absorption du CO₂ en utilisant l'AC immobilisée dans différents bioréacteurs. Plus précisément, les principaux objectifs sont: i) de développer un processus enzymatique amélioré en utilisant l'AC immobilisée dans une colonne à garnissage, ii) d'étudier l'absorption du CO₂ dans un contacteur à membrane avec l'enzyme immobilisée sur la surface de la membrane, et iii) de proposer un nouveau procédé enzymatique hybride dans un contacteur à membrane plane en intensifiant l'absorption du CO₂ par l'enzyme immobilisée autant sur la membrane que sur la surface de nanoparticules magnétiques (MNPs). Une nouvelle technique d'immobilisation de l'AC a été développée en combinant (i) la codéposition de Polydopamine (PDA)/Polyethyleneimine (PEI) contenant des groupes fonctionnels aminés pour fonctionnaliser les surfaces et (ii) l'immobilisation covalente de l'enzyme sur les surfaces aminées en utilisant du glutaraldéhyde. L'approche proposée est intéressante en raison de sa simplicité, de l'abondance des fonctionnalités (amine) du PEI, et de la grande capacité d'adhésion du PDA pendant le processus de fonctionnalisation de la surface, ainsi que de la stabilité et de la réutilisation de l'enzyme immobilisée par liaison covalente. Un procédé enzymatique hybride avec l'enzyme AC immobilisée sur la surface du garnissage et des MNPs dispersées dans l'absorbant liquide (eau) a été développé dans un bioréacteur constitué par une colonne gaz-liquide. L'enzyme a été immobilisée sur la surface fonctionnalisée des MNPs et du garnissage par liaisons covalentes. Même après 40 jours, l'enzyme immobilisée sur le garnissage et les MNPs a montré une remarquable stabilité, conservant, respectivement, 80 % et 84,7 % de son activité initiale. Étant donné que l'enzyme immobilisée sur les MNPs fonctionne comme une enzyme libre en solution, le processus d'hydratation du CO₂ s'est amélioré de manière significative, en particulier lorsqu'il y a une plus importante limitation de la diffusion lors du processus enzymatique avec l'enzyme immobilisée sur la surface du garnissage. L'AC immobilisée sur la surface d'une membrane plane en polypropylène (PP) par codéposition de PDA/ PEI par liaison covalente a montré la plus grande activité et a conservé la plupart de son activité initiale après 40 jours (82.3%). Un flux d'absorption de CO₂ de 0,29x10⁻³ mol/m²s a été atteint en intégrant la membrane biocatalytique dans un contacteur à membrane plane (FSMC), en utilisant l'eau comme absorbant. Un taux stable d'absorption a été obtenu pendant l'opération à plus long terme (6 heures), illustrant le potentiel de cette technologie dans des applications industrielles. La résistance au transfert de masse dans les pores de la membrane partiellement remplis de liquide a été réduite par l'hydratation catalysée du CO₂ dans ces pores en présence de l'AC immobilisée. L'absorption de CO₂ dans un contacteur à membrane plane avec de l'AC immobilisée sur la surface de la membrane a été intensifiée en incorporant également l'enzyme immobilisé sur la surface des MNPs dispersés dans la phase liquide. Le processus d'absorption du CO₂ a été amélioré grâce à la présence de MNPs biocatalytiques qui agissent comme une enzyme libre en phase liquide. L'AC a été immobilisée de manière covalente sur la surface des MNPs fonctionnalisées. L'absorption du CO₂ a été améliorée dans ce système hybride innovant de contacteur à membrane intensifié en maximisant l'utilisation du TON de cette enzyme, en particulier à des concentrations plus faibles d'enzyme sur la membrane biocatalytique. Autant la membrane que les MNPs avec l'AC immobilisée ont démontré leur réutilisabilité, en conservant leurs activités initiales même après 10 cycles d'absorption. Le contacteur à membrane intensifié a également montré un fonctionnement stable pendant plusieurs heures. En conclusion, les résultats obtenus dans cette thèse illustrent le fait que la capture du CO₂ utilisant de l'anhydrase carbonique immobilisée peut offrir une stratégie rentable, verte et respectueuse de l'environnement, représentant une alternative attrayante aux technologies traditionnelles qui utilisent des absorbants à base d'amines. Avec la crise environnementale croissante, les technologies enzymatiques prennent de l'importance, ce qui suscite de plus en plus de tentatives pour les mettre en œuvre à l'échelle industrielle. / Anthropogenic activities have significantly enhanced the amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere and are a major contributor to global warming. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is a primary greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change. Various technologies are being explored across the world to tackle CO₂ capture and sequestration. Despite their efficiency, amine-based solutions have negative environmental impact and the process is energy intensive. CO₂ absorption using carbonic anhydrase (CA) enzyme as catalyst (free in solution or immobilized) is a promising technology which offers high selectivity and efficiency in CO₂ capture processes by using nontoxic and more energy efficient solvents. CA is a well-known biocatalyst endowed with an extraordinary turnover number (TON), which offers to it a very high capacity to boost CO₂ hydration. CA immobilization on solid surfaces enhances the enzyme stability, and reusability and provides the ability for easy separation of the reaction products without biocatalyst contamination. In this context, the present thesis focuses on the investigation of CO₂ absorption process using immobilized CA in different bioreactors. More specifically, the main objectives are: i) developing an enhanced enzymatic process with immobilized CA enzyme in a packed-bed column bioreactor, ii) studying the CO₂ absorption in membrane contactor with immobilized CA enzyme on membrane surface, and iii) proposing a novel hybrid enzymatic process in an intensified flat sheet membrane contactor for improving CO₂ absorption via immobilized CA enzyme on both membrane and magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs). An improved CA immobilization technique was developed in this work using two steps: (i) co-deposition of Polydopamine (PDA)/Polyethyleneimine (PEI) with amino functional groups for amine-functionalization of surfaces and (ii) covalent enzyme immobilization on the aminated surfaces using glutaraldehyde. The proposed approach is appealing because of its simplicity, abundant amine functionalities of PEI, and great adhesion capacity of PDA during surface functionalization process, as well as the stability and reusability of immobilized enzyme via covalent bonding. A hybrid enzymatic process with CA enzyme immobilized on packing surface and MNPs dispersed in the liquid absorbent (water) was developed in a gas-liquid packed-bed column bioreactor. CA was immobilized on amine functionalized surface of MNPs and packings via covalent attachments. Even after 40 days of storage in buffer solution, the immobilized CA on packing and MNPs showed remarkable stability, retaining 80% and 84.7% of its original activity, respectively. Since the enzyme immobilized on MNPs operates as a free solution-phase enzyme, the CO₂ hydration process improved significantly, specially when the diffusion limitation in the enzymatic process with immobilized CA enzyme on the packing surface was significant. CA enzyme immobilized on polypropylene (PP) flat sheet membrane surface via co-deposition of PDA/PEI through covalent bonding method showed the highest activity and preserved most of its initial activity after 40 days (82.3%). A CO₂ absorption flux of 0.29x10⁻³ mol/m²s was attained by integrating the biocatalytic membrane into a flat sheet membrane contactor (FSMC) using water as absorbent. Stable CO₂ absorption rate was obtained during a longer time operation (6 hours), illustrating its potential for industrial applications. Mass transfer resistance in partially liquid-filled membrane pores was shown to be reduced by the catalyzed CO₂ hydration in these pores in the presence of immobilized CA. CO₂ absorption in flat sheet membrane contactor with immobilized CA on membrane surface was intensified by the incorporation of immobilized CA on the surface of MNPs dispersed in the liquid phase. CO₂ absorption process was improved due to the presence of biocatalytic MNPs, which act as a free solution-phase enzyme. CA was covalently immobilized on amine-functionalized MNPs surface. The proposed innovative hybrid enzymatic process in the intensified membrane contactor improved the CO₂ absorption by maximizing the utilization of CA's large TON, specially at lower CA loadings on the biocatalytic membrane. Immobilized membrane and MNPs demonstrated their reusability and retained their initial activities even after 10 absorption cycles. The intensified membrane contactor also displayed a stable operation for several hours. In conclusion, the results achieved in our work illustrate that CO₂ capture using immobilized CA can offer a cost-effective, green, and environmentally friendly strategy, representing an attracting alternative to customary technologies using amine-based absorbents. With the growing environmental crisis, enzymatic CO₂ capture technologies are becoming more important, prompting more attempts to implement them on industrial scales.