Thesis (M.S.)--University of North Texas, Dec., 2009. / Title from title page display. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis--PlanB (M.S.)--University of Wisconsin--Stout, 2000. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.A.)--Western Conservative Baptist Seminary, 1987. / Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 99-107).

The increased public interest in the welfare of animals used in food production has led to the emergence of welfare assessment schemes for a range of livestock species. There are currently over 100 million sheep in the EU which are primarily bred for milk, meat and wool production and the majority of these animals are managed extensively. The general perception of sheep in extensive systems living “natural lives” with few welfare compromises, along with the practical challenges of adequately assessing their welfare, has caused them to be largely ignored in comparison to other species. It was only relatively recently that the lack of animalbased welfare assessments for extensively kept small ruminants was recognised. Thus, the aim of this project was to evaluate potential animal-based welfare indicators for use during on-farm welfare assessments of extensively managed sheep. The current project used the Welfare Quality® 4 principles and 12 criteria as a foundation for selecting indicators for the assessment of extensively managed sheep. Following a comprehensive review of the scientific literature and a meeting attended by experts from across the EU, 16 indicators were selected for evaluation. Each principle and criteria were covered by at least one of these 16 indicators ensuring the main aspects of sheep welfare were addressed. The indicators selected for investigation could either be applied without handling or gathering the animals during an 'Assessment in the Field', or during a more thorough hands-on 'Assessment at Gather'. The reliability, feasibility and validity of some indicators (e.g. body condition scoring) are already established. However for others (e.g. Qualitative Behavioural Assessment approach), at least one of these criteria required further investigation before the indicator could be accepted. The reliability of selected measures was evaluated by assessing their repeatability and inter-observer agreement. Face validity was assumed for the indicators selected during the expert meeting, and further cross validation was performed when appropriate using additional information collected on the animal’s physical health status. During the Assessments at Gather blood samples were collected for the assessment of metabolic profiles, and faecal samples provided gastro-intestinal parasite counts. The Assessments at Gather were performed on the same 100-135 Scottish Blackface ewes across a two year period (2011-2013) on a Scottish hill farm. The Assessments at Gather occurred five times a year coinciding with key points in the ewes’ reproductive cycle: pre-mating, mid-pregnancy, late pregnancy, mid lactation and weaning. During the assessments data were collected on the ewe’s body condition, coat cleanliness, faecal soiling score, respiratory conditions, anaemia, lameness and udder condition (udders assessed during lactation only). Current stage in the reproductive cycle and seasonality were found to have significant impacts upon the long-term reliability of the following measures: body condition score, tooth loss, nasal discharge and anaemia scores (P < 0.001) with variation both within, and between years. On commercial farms older and less productive ewes tend to be removed from the flock once a year prior to mating. Of the indicators applied to the ewes during the Assessments at Gathers, tooth loss and body condition score were the best predictors for the ewe’s exclusion from the flock, predicting the future removal of a ewe from the flock 12 months in advance of the shepherd’s decision. For the Assessments in the Field, indicators which did not necessitate close contact were required. A whole-animal method (Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) was therefore particularly useful as it can be performed with minimal disturbance. Rather than quantitatively scoring the behaviour patterns of an animal the assessor focusses on how the animal interacts with their environment. This information is translated in to qualitative descriptors such as “calm” or “agitated”. Good interobserver reliability was found when three observers assessed 49 individual ewes on two occasions (W=0.77, P < 0.001). When QBA was applied 13 times to 50 individual ewes over a six-month time period (spanning late pregnancy to post-weaning) four meaningful Principal Components were identified; the first two accounted for more than half of the explained variation between sheep. The two main components were ‘General Mood’ (PC1), describing the overall affective state of the ewe, and ‘Arousal’ (PC2) reflecting energy levels. General Mood scores significantly increased in the post-lambing period compared to pre-lambing observations, and significantly increased again post-weaning (P < 0.001). Ewes were significantly experiencing significantly higher Arousal in post-lambing and post-weaning conditions compared to pre-lambing (P < 0.001), but there was no difference between post-lambing and post-weaning. During the Assessments in the Field data were also collected on: the ewe’s response to human approach, a surprise test, the ewe’s social group size, group demographics and behavioural synchrony. Ewes with lower mood scores tended to have larger distances between them and other ewes (P=0.023). The distance to which a human could approach before the ewe fled was significantly related to Arousal (P=0.05), as ewes in a higher energy state fled from the approaching human sooner than those who were in lower Arousal states. Ewes in social groups with higher numbers of ewe and lamb vocalisations tended to have lower General Mood scores (P=0.014), and lower Arousal scores (P < 0.001) than those in smaller groups. Indicators which met the conditions of feasibility, reliability and validity (for example, those reported above) proved to be suitable for use when assessing the welfare of extensively managed sheep. The effect of time on the reliability of the indicators applied during the assessments have important implications for understanding temporary fluctuations in the animal’s welfare caused by either internal (reproductive state) or external (environmental) factors. These fluctuations may not be representative of a farm’s overall welfare levels in the long term and therefore further careful consideration of the most appropriate time to apply the selected indicators is required.

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The aim of this thesis was to provide a better understanding of the needs of spider monkeys (genus: Ateles) kept in zoological parks in order to provide an appropriate environment, which enhances the physical and emotional wellbeing of the individuals. This series of studies adopted primarily a physiological approach that entailed measuring cortisol in urine samples collected over a seven year period to assess the impact of a variety of social and environmental conditions. My studies also involved behavioural observations and a questionnaire study to collect information from other zoological parks that maintain groups of spider monkeys. In order to address the aims of my research I first validated an enzyme immunoassay for urinary cortisol which allowed for the activity of the HPA axis to be measured to assess the physiological stress responses in spider monkeys. The first study assessed the impact of visitors on spider monkeys by comparing levels of urinary cortisol collected with visitor numbers and I found an increase in visitor numbers was associated with an increase in cortisol. This was the first time the physiological impact of visitors was investigated and supports behavioural researcher that visitors adversely impact on primates in zoos. The second study I carried out involved a questionnaires to investigate frequency, direction and intensity of aggression in zoo-housed spider monkeys in 55 other zoos around the world. The pattern of aggressions reported indicated severe and lethal aggression was relatively frequent among captive spider monkeys. Adult males were the most frequent actors of aggression and sub adult males were the most frequent targets, contradicting reports from wild spider monkeys. This aggression could be a condition of the management of spider monkeys in the zoos whereby males and normally transferred between zoos contradicting reports from the wild spider monkeys in which females would emigrate on reaching maturity. Next I investigated aggression, reproductive and separation stressors in the spider monkeys housed at Chester Zoo over a seven year period and measured their effects via changes in urinary cortisol prior to, at and following each event. Aggression had the largest effect, with targets and bystanders having the highest levels of cortisol on the day of aggression for severe and lethal aggression, respectively. When examining the reproductive events, cortisol levels were significantly elevated in the mother the week prior to and the day or birth, but were highest for bystander females on the day of birth. In the case of separations, cortisol was elevated when an individual was separated for longer than 24 hours for separations and less than 24 hours for reintroductions. Finally I investigated the replacement of the breeding male in the spider monkeys at Chester Zoo. Although a significant behavioural effect was identified in the adult females, there was little evidence of an increase in urinary cortisol among them. In addition, there were no instances of aggression between the adult males and the juvenile male in the group. Overall conclusions from this study indicate that the group of spider monkeys did demonstrate a varying stress response to a variety of social and environmental stressors associated with elevated cortisol levels and behavioural changes. However, there was no evidence of long term chronic stressors which are normally associated with poor welfare. This indicated that the environmental provided for this particular group of zoo-housed spider monkeys generally allowed for the individuals within the group to cope and adapt. In light these findings the study also makes a number of recommendations regarding the enclosure design, relocated of individuals and the gradual introduction of spider monkeys in zoos. The findings of this study are important as it contributes to our understanding of the physiological responses to stressors in a zoo environment and therefore has implications for animal management. It also identifies potential species specific requirements for the spider monkey that should be considered.

In the UK annual lamb mortality rates range between 10-30% with the majority of deaths occurring within the first three days of life, however research has shown that lambs that stand and suck quickly are more likely to survive. Modern breeding strategies have led to breeds of sheep, such as the Suffolk, which despite greater lean muscle growth, show slower behavioural development and are less able to thermoregulate in the neonatal period than relatively unselected breeds, such as the Scottish Blackface. The reason for this is unclear however fast growing strains of pigs and cattle have been shown to have a greater proportion of fast-twitch fibres to slow fibres in their muscles, but it is still unknown as to whether these changes in fibre proportions affect muscle function and behaviour. Thus the aim of this project is to investigate whether selection for lean muscle growth in sheep has altered muscle development by affecting the proportions of different fibre types and determine what effect this may have on the animal’s ability to perform certain behaviours, such as neonatal progression to standing and sucking. As muscle fibre development occurs very early in gestation (starting around day 32) it was also hypothesised that there may also be a relationship between muscle fibre characteristics, and foetal behaviour and presentation at birth. A further hypothesis to be addressed was that maternal undernutrition of 75% of requirements for ewe maintenance and foetal growth for the first 90 days of gestation would have a greater negative effect on muscle fibre development in genotypes selected for lean muscle growth. It was found that Suffolk foetuses (genotype selected for lean growth) were significantly less active at days 56 and 77 of gestation than Blackface foetuses (genotype relatively unselected for growth) while nutritionally restricted foetuses were more active at day 56 than control foetuses. A subsequent study found that there was a negative relationship between foetal activity at day 56 and neonatal activity while activity at day 98 of gestation was positively associated with neonatal activity. A relationship was also found between foetal activity and presentation at birth with malpresented lambs being less active as foetuses at day 77 of gestation than normally presented lambs. Suffolk foetuses had lower proportions of slow twitch (SO) fibres and higher proportions of fast-oxidative-glycolytic (FOG) fibres in the soleus (postural muscle) than Blackface foetuses and SO fibre proportions were positively correlated with foetal activity at days 56 and 77 of gestation while fast twitch (FOG and FO) and transitional (Trans) fibre proportions were negatively correlated with foetal activity at each scanning period. Suffolk lambs showed significantly slower neonatal behavioural development than Blackface lambs and there was an interaction between breed and nutritional treatment with prenatally undernourished Suffolk lambs consistently being less active and prenatally undernourished Blackface lambs being more active than all other groups of lambs. At slaughter at 164 days old, Suffolk lambs had lower proportions of SO fibres and higher proportions of fastglycolytic (FG) fibres in the soleus muscle while also having a lower proportion of FG fibres in the plantaris (muscle involved in movement of the limb) than Blackface lambs. SO fibre proportions in the soleus muscle were found to be positively correlated with total duration standing and walking in the early neonatal period while proportion of FG fibres in the plantaris was negatively correlated with duration of lying laterally following birth. The results from this study indicate that divergent breeding strategies have led to differences in muscle fibre proportions within certain muscles in sheep and also that there may be a relationship between muscle development and both foetal and neonatal lamb behaviour. This research has added to our understanding of the consequences of selection for growth on the function of the animal and it is hoped that it will lead to the development of broader breeding goals which incorporate welfare characteristics.