The agrarian question is one of Zimbabwe's enduring colonial legacies. At independence the ensemble if issues comprising the agrarian question included an inequitable racial distribution of land, different tenure systems for blacks and white settlers, a discriminatory provision of agricultural support services, and repressive relations between the state and the peasantry. Peasant grievances over the agrarian question mobilised their support for the liberation struggle which culminated in independence in 1980. Contrary to the expectations of the majority of Zimbabweans, agrarian reforms introduced since independence have not transformed the colonial agrarian structure. The thesis investigates factors which account for the nature of agrarian reforms. Using a socio-historical analysis, it examines changes and continuities in agrarian policies and laws. In the main, the thesis argues that reform has been shaped by changes in power relations in society which are reflected in the exercise of state power. It shows that the manner in which independence was achieved and the character and ideologies of the social forces that inherited state power account for the changes and continuities in policies and laws. The thesis demonstrates that land reform was initially constrained by the constitutional provision which protected private property from compulsory acquisition. More important, it argues that reform has been determined by the failure to transform the inherited accumulation strategy, of which capitalist agriculture is an integral element. In addition, it demonstrates that the manner in which land has been redistributed reflects the continuation of colonial ideologies of modernisation. Furthermore, the thesis shows that communal tenure as constructed by the colonial state has been retained partly because of the ideology of nee-traditionalism and partly because it allows the state to intervene in peasant land use and production processes' as part of the process of modernisation. It also shows that the modernisation of peasant agriculture has been attempted through the extension of input, credit, price and marketing packages. Consequently, the thesis shows that the agrarian question is as relevant today as it was at independence, and that the limited and contradictory nature of the agrarian reforms reflects the limitations and contradictions inherent in the post-colonial democratisation process. Hence agrarian reform can only be adequately addressed as part of a comprehensive transformation of the accumulation process and societal democratisation.

The Indian legal system has been dealing with the problem of domestic violence in the recent years especially since the advent of the new legislation the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, which was brought into effect from the 26th of August, 2006. The original contribution that this thesis makes to knowledge is that it identifies a potential category of users of this law- Women in Unconventional Relationships (WUR), and tests the support systems and the ease of access available to this category of women within two different domestic violence frameworks in India. This thesis locates the constructions of transgressive WUR identities in history, society and theoretical discourse and investigates whether these constructions adversely affect their legal subjectivity under the domestic violence law in India. It locates WUR within the domestic violence framework in Delhi, named the Victim Model for the purposes of this research, and within the Survivor Model in Mumbai. It privileges the voices of ten WUR who articulate their experiences of survival, domestic violence and the law. The research uses a combination of inter-subjective reflexive research and a feminist analysis of the domestic violence framework. The constructions of identities and the levels of transgression that take place and its effects on survivor/victim legal agency are investigated. The thesis identifies the best domestic violence framework suited for WUR which encourages their rights-bearing capacity as full-fledged citizens of the Indian state.

This study analyses the discursive construction of part-time employment and the workers in it in the employmentand legal contexts in Britain and Japan, applying an analytical framework of the law developed from a post-structuralist feminist viewpoint. In doing this, this study contributes to knowledge in the field of legal studies by providing an account of the active role of the law in the area of employment,through the operation of discourse, in shaping and reshaping structural inequality which part-time women employees face in contemporary British and Japanese society. Evidence for this study is collected from statistical data, questionnaires and interviews with managers, interviews with a group of ex-part-time women workers pursuing a legal case and the close reading of legal materials in the two countries. From the examination of these data, two discourses are identified,which circulate in employment and legal institutions in both countries and which help to produce the differentiation between full-time and part-time employees. One discourse emphasises differencesin labour-related factors, such as working hours, job content and commitment, while the other emphasises differences in the gendered characteristics and domestic positions of men and women. I show that the two discourses operate within and across these institutions, constructing part-time employment as different from and inferior to full-time employment on both labour related and gender-related grounds, and legitimisingthe disadvantaged position of part-time employees. This discursive construction has brought about a gendered hierarchy within the law in which the inferior working pattern of part-time employment is gendered as women's, while the superior pattern of full-time employmentis gendered as men's. On the basis of this analysis, I argue that the law is one of the most influential discursive mechanisms which bring about and help to sustain the hierarchical gendering of society, contributing to the production and reproduction of unequal power relations between the sexes and between employers and part-time women employees.

Post-independent Cameroon has grappled with the problem of systemic violation of civil and political rights (CPR) despite a transition from single party dictatorship to multiparty democracy in the 1990s. Various legislative measures including the adoption of a supposedly ‘rights friendly’ constitution in 1996 have done little to ameliorate that problem. This thesis adopts a concept of constitutionalism, based on contemporary international standards, to analyse the problem of CPR violations from the perspective of the constitutional arrangements in Cameroon. It examines the system of separation of powers, the method of securing judicial independence and the mechanisms for judicial review. The argument is made that the problem can be attributed in part to the predominant influence of the French civil law system in Cameroon’s bijural legal system. Although for historical reasons, Cameroon operates both the English common law and the French civil law, constitutional developments have continued to be influenced by the latter which lends itself to practices that are not sufficiently supportive of constitutionalism as defined herein. The thesis, however, goes further to explore how the constitutional system could be reinforced to provide a more conducive framework for the protection and enhancement of CPR. Drawing on two strands of arguments, one highlighting features of the common law system that can be more supportive of constitutionalism and the other which highlights the value of indigenous antecedents of constitutionalism, the thesis proposes the development of a contextual model which is more reflective of Cameroon’s peculiar legal and socio-political circumstances. It proposes what is described as an Optimal Integrative Approach (OIA) as a framework for developing a contextual model, more conducive for the protection and enhancement of CPR in Cameroon.

Thesis (PhD (Botany and Zoology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Although the impacts of biological invasions are widely appreciated, a bias exists in research effort to post‐dispersal processes because of the difficulties of measuring propagule pressure and the detecting of newly established species. Here the Antarctic is used as a model system in which to quantify the initial dispersal of alien species and investigate the factors that contribute to the establishment and range dynamics of alien species once they have arrived in the region. Human movements are known to transport alien species into the Antarctic, some of which have successfully established and had wide ranging consequences in recipient ecosystems. Considering terrestrial flora, this research found that over 700 seeds from 99 taxa, including some species known to be invasive, are transported into the Antarctic each year in association with South African National Antarctic Programme (SANAP) passenger luggage and cargo. The first ever assessment of propagule drop‐off indicated that 30‐50% of these propagules will enter the recipient environment. Further results suggested that the construction of the British Antarctic Survey Halley VI station will facilitate the transport of over 5000 seeds from 34 taxa into the region, making this a significant pathway for introductions. Propagule pressure due to SANAP logistics is also considerable for marine species. Fouling assemblages on the external hull surfaces of the SANAP resupply vessel, the SA Agulhas, form only once the vessel’s anti‐fouling paint has been damaged by travel through sea ice and are characterised by low diversity. Ice scour prevents fouling assemblages from being transported to the Antarctic continent, but assemblages remain largely intact when travelling to sub‐Antarctic Islands. In the sea‐chests of the vessel populations of a known invasive, Mytilus galloprovincialis, were found with some individuals having survived transportation to the Antarctic region on multiple occasions. Once species have overcome initial dispersal barriers, they face further ecological and physiological challenges in order to establish in the recipient region. The parasitoid wasp Aphidius matricariae was first recorded on Marion Island in 2001. Surveys around the island show that adult abundance and the frequency of aphid parasitism are highest adjacent to a common anchor point of the SA Agulhas and decline away from this region. Genetic diversity was low, suggesting that the population was established from a single introduction. This highlights that high propagule pressure is not necessary for successful establishment of introduced invertebrates. Another species that has overcome the dispersal barrier is the terrestrial slug Deroceras panormitanum, which was introduced to Marion Island in the 1970’s and has since spread throughout much of the coastal habitat of the island. For this species range limits are set by intolerance of low temperature and salinity, and abundance structure is characterized by patches and gaps which are associated with this species inability to tolerate dry conditions. To prevent further alien introductions in the region, targeted management of high risk pathways is required. In addition, increased vigilance is needed to detect and manage newly established aliens before their ranges expand. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Alhoewel die impak van biologiese indringings in die breë waardeer word, bestaan daar vooroordeel in navorsingspogings ten opsigte van na‐verspreidingsprosesse, weens die moeilikhede om verspreidingseenheid druk te meet en in die opsporing van nuut gevestigde spesies. Hier word die Antarktiese streek as ‘n model sisteem gebruik waarin die aanvanklike verspreiding van uitheemse spesies gekwantifiseer kan word en om die faktore wat bydrae tot die vestiging en grens dinamika van uitheemse spesies te ondersoek, wanneer hulle in ’n streek aangekom het. Menslike bewegings is bekend daarvoor om uitheemse spesies na die Antarktiek te vervoer, sommige waarvan suksesvol gevestig het en omvattende gevolge in die ontvanger ekosisteme gehad het. Aangaande terrestriële flora het hierdie navorsing gevind dat oor die 700 sade van 99 taxa, insluitende sommige spesies wat bekend is om indringend te wees, jaarliks na die Antarktiek vervoer word in assosiasie met die Suid Afrikaanse Nasionale Antarktiese Program (SANAP) se bagasie en vrag. Die eerste waardebepaling van verspreidingseenheid afgooi het aangedui dat 30‐50% van hierdie verspreidingseenhede die ontvanger omgewing sal binnedring. Verdere resultate het voorgestel dat die konstruksie van die Britse Antarktiese Opname Halley VI stasie die vervoer van 5000 sade van 34 taxa sal fasiliteer die streek in, wat dit ’n betekenisvolle weg maak vir indringings. Verspreidingseenheid druk is ook, as gevolg van die SANAP logistiek, aanmerklik vir mariene spesies. Vuilgoed versamelings op die eksterne omhullende oppervlaktes van die SANAP her‐voorsieningsvaartuig, die SA Agulhas, vorm wanneer die vaartuig se anti‐vuilgoed verf beskadig is met reis deur see‐ys en word gekenmerk deur lae diversiteit. Ys skuring voorkom dat vuilgoed versamelings vervoer word na die Antarktiese kontinent, maar versamelings bly grootliks vasgeheg wanneer na sub‐Antarktiese eilande gereis word. Populasies van ’n welbekende indringer, Mytilus galloprovincialis, is gevind in die see‐storingsarea van die vaartuig, met sommige individue wat die vervoering na die Antarktiese streek oorleef het op verskeie geleenthede. Wanneer spesies die aanvanklike verspreidingshindernisse oorkom het, staar hulle verdere ekologies en fisiologiese uitdagings in die gesig ten einde in die ontvanger streek te vestig. Die parasitiese wespe Aphidius matricariae is vir die eerste keer op Marion aangeteken in 2001. Opnames om die eiland toon dat volwasse oorvloed en die frekwensie van plantluis parasitisme die hoogste is aangrensend die algemene ankerpunt van die SA Agulhas en afneem weg van die omgewing af. Genetiese diversiteit was laag, wat voorstel dat die populasie gevestig het van ’n enkele bekendstelling. Dit lig uit dat hoë verspreidingseenheid druk nie nodig is vir die suksesvolle vestiging van bekendgestelde invertebrata nie. ‘n Ander spesie wat die verspreidingshindernisse oorkom het is die landslak Deroceras panormitanum wat in die 1970’s op Marion Eiland bekendgestel is en wat sedertdien versprei het oor meeste van die kushabitat van die eiland. Vir hierdie spesie word grens limiete vasgestel deur onverdraagsaamheid vir lae temperature en saliniteit en die oorvloedstruktuur word gekenmerk deur laslappe en gapings wat geassosieer word met die spesie se onvermoë om droë kondisies te hanteer. Om verdere uitheemse bekendstellings in die streek te voorkom, word geteikende bestuur van hoë risiko weë vereis. Toenemende waaksamheid is bykomend nodig vir die opsporing en bestuur van nuutgevestigde uitheemse spesies voordat hulle grense verbreed.

In this thesis, I describe large-scale and small-scale features of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) by merging conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) data obtained by novel animal-borne sensors with data obtained by more conventional means. Twenty-one CTD-Satellite Relay Data Loggers (CTD-SRDLs) were attached to Southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) on South Georgia in 2004 and 2005. This was part of a larger international study (Southern Elephant Seals as Oceanographic Samplers; SEaOS), in which I played a major role in developing the oceanographic approach used to integrate physical data from a range of sources, and the means to link biological findings to oceanographic parameters. The development of animal-borne oceanographic sensors and their potential place within an ocean observing system is reviewed initially. Then, I describe the Series 9000 CTD-SRDL in detail, discussing its performance in the lab and during two field experiences with Southern elephant seals and Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii ). Following this, a detailed study of the ACC frontal system in the South Atlantic is presented that uses merged Argo float data and CTD-SRDL data. The structure of the frontal field revealed by this unique dataset is examined, and unprecedented insight into its variability is obtained. Amongst the important findings is that, contrary to most climate models, our in situ data suggest a northward shift of the ACC east of 40W in 2004 and 2005 compared to previous work. Next, two CTD-SRDL sections are presented to identify the locations of the ACC fronts across Drake Passage, and an empirical relationship between upper ocean temperature and baroclinic mass transport is used to determine the transport through Drake Passage at the times of the sections. This technique is a powerful complement to more conventional means of data collection in this region, especially given the ability of the seals to conduct "sections" at times when ship-based fieldwork is logistically most challenging, i.e. in the winter time. The CTD-SRDLs do not only record hydrographic data, but simultaneously record seal movements and diving behavior. This enables insight to be obtained on the behavioral and physiological responses of Southern elephant seals to spatial environmental variability throughout their circumpolar range. The resulting energetic consequences of these variations could help explain recently observed spatially varying population trends. With a stable population at South Georgia and declining populations at Kerguelen and Macquarie Island. This study also highlights the benefits to the sensorcarrying animals themselves by showing the usefulness of this approach in examining the sensitivity of top predators to global and regional-scale climate variability. More importantly, I conclude that, by implementing animal-borne sensors into ocean observing strategies, we not only gain information about global ocean circulation and enhance our understanding of climate and the corresponding heat and salt transports, but at the same time we increase our knowledge about ocean’s top predators, their life history and their sensitivity to climate change.

Repeat track analysis is one tool that can be used to derive parameters describing elevation changes from elevation data collected from a satellite with a near-repeat groundtrack. While initially developed to study ocean topography, it was then applied to ice sheet data. This study expands upon that previous research by testing the method’s ability to estimate parameters using different amounts of data, different grid sizes and types, and different elevation models containing different parameters to be estimated. In all cases, ICESat-derived elevations were used as input data, as ICESat has a near-repeat groundtrack with extensive coverage of the Greenland and Antarctica ice sheets. Results were compared using the differences between modeled and ICESat-derived elevations, correlation of estimated parameters to known physical features, and differences between known and estimated parameter values for simulated elevation data. It was found that there should be data from at least as many distinct time periods (or, in the case of ICESat, laser campaigns) as parameters being estimated, grids centered on and aligned with the reference groundtrack should be used, and that elevation models containing a constant elevation change rate, slopes, an initial elevation at the grid center, and annual terms should be used. Crossover analysis is a different method to determine elevation change rate with elevation data and serves as an independent verification of the repeat track analysis method. It was found that the hdot values determined from crossover and repeat track analyses agreed to within 5 cm/yr in most areas of the ice sheets, with differences greater than 40 cm/yr along the coasts. While repeat track analysis provides greater coverage than crossover analysis, it is uncertain which method provides the most accurate results. / text

Outfacing the Storm is a song cycle that tells the story of the spectacular failure-turned-triumph of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Led by Sir Ernest Shackleton, the Expedition was an attempt to trek overland across the whole of the Antarctic continent. Shackleton’s ship, the Endurance, launched from England in August of 1914 with twenty-eight men. Within weeks of entering the polar latitudes, ice ensnared the ship. The Endurance remained stuck fast until the spring breakup crushed its hull, and it sank in November of 1915. The crew struck out for civilization, and, after six months and over one thousand miles of travel by foot, by ice-drift, and by lifeboat, they returned home alive. The Expedition’s safe return was heavily credited by its crew to Shackleton himself. A man of intense character, burning passion, and unfailing determination, Shackleton put the needs of his crew ahead of all else. His individual dedication to each member of the voyage was an inspiration to each. Ernest Shackleton, however, was a private man. He hid his own concerns from all except those closest to him. During the Expedition, he feared for the well-being of the crew. In the largest sense, he feared failure. Shackleton was only ever content while at sea. “Sometimes,” he wrote to his wife, “I think I am no good at anything but being away in the wilds… I grow restless and feel any part of youth is slipping away from me and that nothing matters… I feel I am no use to anyone unless I am outfacing the storm in wild lands.” This song cycle tells the tale of the Expedition through Shackleton’s eyes. The cycle is in eleven movements—nine recounting the story, plus a prologue and epilogue. All of the text is Shackleton’s own. The nine middle movements are taken from Shackleton’s memoir about the voyage, South. The prologue and epilogue are taken, respectively, from an interview and the above letter. / Music, Butler School of / text

<p>Multifunctional enzymes have alternative functions or activities, known as “moonlighting” or “promiscuous”, which are often hidden behind a native enzyme activity and therefore only visible under special environmental conditions. In this thesis, the active-site of Pseudozyma (formerly Candida) antarctica lipase B was explored for a promiscuous conjugate addition activity. Pseudozyma antarctica lipase B is a lipase industrially used for hydrolysis or transacylation reactions. This enzyme contains a catalytic triad, Ser105-His224-Asp187, where a nucleophilic attack from Ser105 on carboxylic acid/ester substrates cause the formation of an acyl enzyme. For conjugate addition activity in Pseudozyma antarctica lipase B, replacement of Ser105 was assumed necessary to prevent competing hemiacetal formation. However, experiments revealed conjugate addition activity in both wild-type enzyme and the Ser105Ala variant. Enzyme-catalyzed conjugate additions were performed by adding sec-amine, thiols or 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds to various α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds in both water or organic solvent. The reactions followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics and the native ping pong bi bi reaction mechanism of Pseudozyma antarctica lipase B for hydrolysis/transacylation was rerouted to a novel ordered bi uni reaction mechanism for conjugate addition (Paper I, II, III). The lipase hydrolysis activity was suppressed more than 1000 times by the replacement of the nucleophilic Ser105 to Ala (Paper III).</p>

The purpose of this research was to investigate the physical weathering of rock along the Victoria Land Coast, Antarctica. It was designed to contribute to the Latitudinal Gradient Project, a joint initiative between the New Zealand, Italian and United States Antarctic Programmes. The Latitudinal Gradient Project aims to improve our understanding of the ecosystems of the Dry Valleys and ice-free areas of the Ross Sea Region and, by using latitude as a proxy measure, identify how they might be affected by future climate change. The approach taken for this research was to use information on rock (from one rock group) temperature and moisture conditions gathered from three field locations to inform laboratory simulations. The laboratory simulations would then be used to investigate the weathering of small rock blocks and aggregates. Two temperature cycles approximating those experienced during summer and spring/autumn were identified and simulations undertaken in a specially adapted freezer. Three levels of moisture were applied: no moisture, half saturation and full saturation. Results of the laboratory simulations indicated that although rocks responded in different ways to different processes, granular disintegration took place even in the absence of additional moisture and did not require crossings of the 0 OC isotherm, nor were high levels of moisture required for across zero temperature cycling to produce weathering effects. A model that related weathering to latitude was developed and changes in climate explored. It was found that the weathering effect of summer and spring/autumn cycles was different and depended on rock characteristics rather than latitude. Increasing the ratio of summer to spring/autumn temperature cycles by 10% indicated that weathering could decrease or remain the same depending on the particular rock. Changes in temperature were found to be more important than changes in moisture. A weathering index that related local climate and rock properties to weathering was also developed and this highlighted the difficulties of using laboratory results to predict field rates of weathering. There were some surprising results from the field, including the presence of much more moisture on the surface of the rock, primarily from blowing snow, than had been predicted for this dry environment. This occurred even in the presence of negative rock surface temperatures. In addition, winter rock surface temperatures can fluctuate up to 25 OC, getting as warm as -10 OC. Macro-climate and changes in air temperature in response to foehn and katabatic winds were the drivers for these fluctuations.