This study presents a method for measurement of whole-body average specific absorption rate (WBSAR) of a millimeter wave (mmWave) antenna in a reverberation chamber. The method takes advantage of multiple radiated power measurements to estimate the power absorbed in a phantom placed in front of the antenna. The first set of measurements is a total radiated power estimation of the antenna. The second set measures the radiated power from the combined antenna and phantom system. By taking the difference between the two measurements, the power absorbed in the phantom and hence WBSAR, which is defined as the total power absorbed in a body divided by the whole-body mass, can be estimated. This method builds on previous reverberation chamber techniques and improves them by isolating only the power absorbed from direct illumination corresponding to a realistic exposure environment of mmWave antennas with high directivity. Verification has been performed by comparing measurements of a horn antenna with a simulation. The difference between measurements and simulation has been found to be less than 1 dB, while the maximum measurement uncertainty was estimated to be 1.1 dB. With the developed method, WBSAR measurements of an Ericsson 5G mmWave base station has been conducted. In 2020 the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) published new guidelines for radio frequency electromagnetic fields containing limitations for WBSAR up to 300 GHz. Since these guidelines are new there is currently no standardized measurement method to assess WBSAR in the mmWave frequency ranges. Therefore, the proposed method could be of interest for standardization institutions. / I denna studie presenteras en metod för att i en modväxlande kammare mäta helkroppsbaserad specifik absorptionshastighet (whole-body average specific absorption rate, WBSAR) för en antenn i millimetervågsområdet. Metoden använder mätningar av utstrålad effekt i två situationer, utan och med en helkroppsmodell (fantom). Först mäts den utstrålade effekten från antennen utan fantom, sedan mäts den när fantomen är placerad framför antennen. Differensen mellan de två mätningarna ger den absorberade effekten i fantomen, vilken kan användas för att bestämma WBSAR genom att dela med massan. Metoden bygger på tidigare tekniker för modväxlande kammare och utvecklar dem genom att isolera effekten absorberad från direkt exponering. På så sätt ger metoden realistiska resultat för starkt riktade millimetervågsantenner. Verifikation har utförts genom att jämföra mätningar av en hornantenn med simuleringar vid 28 GHz. Skillnaden mellan de mätta och simulerade värdena var mindre än 1 dB och med en uppskattad maximal mätosäkerhet på 1.1 dB. Med den utvecklade metoden mättes WBSAR för en Ericsson 5G basstation vid frekvensen 28 GHz. År 2020 publicerade ICNIRP nya riktlinjer för exponering för radiofrekventa elektromagnetiska fält som inkluderar begränsningar av WBSAR vid frekvenser upp till 300 GHz. Eftersom dessa riktlinjer är nya finns nuvarande ingen standardiserad metod för att mäta WBSAR i millimetervågsområdet. Metoden kan därför vara av intresse för standardiseringsorganisationer

The concept for a novel new antenna design is presented and investigated for application to ground penetrating radar (GPR). The proposed new antenna design is called the shielded magnetic bowtie antenna (MBA). As the name suggests, it is predominately constructed from a bowtie-shaped volume of magnetic material that is fed from the centre of the structure by a small magnetic loop antenna. This thesis develops the magnetic antenna concept and investigates its potential for GPR predominately through numerical modelling. However, a significant part of the investigation concentrates on validating the numerical modelling technique developed to study the shielded MBA by comparing the results with measurements obtained from a scale model constructed to operate in the watertank antenna test facility, a controlled environment for GPR antenna research. The broadband properties required for GPR antennas are achieved uniquely with the shielded MBA design by a combination of the antenna shape being defined in terms of angles and an inherent magnetic loss mechanism within the antenna material structure. The design also affords an intrinsically placed antenna shield that has the potential for mitigating problems typically experienced with shielding electric dipole antennas. Antenna shielding is an important consideration for GPR antenna designers, especially given the recent US government (FCC) changes that restrict radiated energy emissions within the regulated spectrum used by GPR systems. In addition to providing the intended directional radiation properties, the magnetic antenna shield also provides an elegant solution for a low-loss wideband balun, allowing the antenna to be effectively fed from an unbalanced coaxial transmission line. Other important aspects of the proposed design are discussed in relation to the requirements for GPR antennas. Numerical models of the magnetic antenna concept show encouraging bandwidth results. For example, from a simple comparison with an equivalent sized electric bowtie antenna model, the effective gain bandwidth of the magnetic antenna is found to be at least 3-octaves compared to approximately 2-octaves for the electric bowtie. The shielded magnetic antenna achieves a gain of approximately 2 dB, compared to 5 dB for the unshielded electric bowtie antenna. However, it is noted that the magnetic antenna models contain significantly more loss compared to the electric bowtie model. The shielded MBA design emerged from a theoretical investigation of electrically small GPR antennas, given that the initial thesis objective was to investigate ways of improving low frequency GPR antennas. In general, GPR systems are operated with electric dipole antennas, such as the electric bowtie. Interestingly, the electrically small antenna investigation revealed that only the small magnetic loop (i.e., magnetic dipole) antenna can be constructed to approach, arbitrarily closely, the fundamental bandwidth limit for small antennas. This surprising and counter intuitive result is shown to be theoretically achievable with the use of magnetic materials. For the small loop antenna, energy stored within the antenna structure can be avoided by filling the antenna sphere with a perfect magnetic material. This theoretical argument is discussed and supported by numerically modelled results. The electrically small antenna investigation presented in this thesis extends to include the influence that proximity to a lossy dielectric half-space has, on improving the antenna impedance bandwidth. This investigation is of general interest for GPR; it is performed numerically and supported by measurements conducted on an experimental loop antenna situated at various heights above the ground. These results provide support for the hypothesis that a magnetic antenna may experience less influence from near-field changes in the dielectric properties of the ground compared to the equivalent sized electric field antenna.

Durante la última década, los métodos de optimización heurísticos basados en imitar a nivel computacional procesos naturales, biológicos, sociales o culturales, han despertado el interés de la comunidad científica debido a su capacidad para explorar eficientemente espacios de soluciones multimodales y multidimensionales. En este ámbito, esta tesis aborda el desarrollo, análisis y puesta a punto de diferentes métodos de optimización tradicionales y heurísticos. En concreto, se considera un método de búsqueda local basado en símplex y varios métodos heurísticos, tales como el recocido simulado, los algoritmos genéticos y la optimización con enjambre de partículas. Para estos dos últimos algoritmos se investigan diferentes esquemas con el objetivo de superar las limitaciones propias de los esquemas clásicos.La puesta a punto de los diferentes métodos de optimización se realiza considerando como problema de referencia la caracterización de la radiación de antenas a partir de medidas en campo próximo sobre geometría plana, utilizando un método de transformación de campo cercano a campo lejano basado en corrientes equivalentes. Para cada método de optimización se incluye un análisis paramétrico, en los casos en los que se ha considerado necesario, así como resultados de transformación de campo teóricos obtenidos para diferentes antenas de apertura y antenas de bocina piramidal. Los resultados de un estudio comparativo, realizado utilizando fuentes teóricas y medidas, demuestran la utilidad del método y permiten concluir que la optimización con enjambre de partículas es el algoritmo que proporciona las mejores prestaciones para esta aplicación.Los métodos de optimización desarrollados e investigados en este trabajo han sido también aplicados a otros problemas como son la síntesis de agrupaciones lineales o el modelado de fuente en aplicaciones de compatibilidad electromagnética. / For the last decade, heuristic optimization methods based on imitating natural, biological, social or cultural processes in a computational way have aroused great interest among the scientific community, due to its ability to explore efficiently multimodal and high-dimension solution spaces. On this basis, this thesis tackles the development, analysis and tuning of different traditional and heuristic optimization methods. In short, a local search method based on simplex and several heuristic methods, such as simulated annealing, genetic algorithms and particle swarm optimization are considered. For these last two algorithms different schemes are investigated so as to overcome the typical limitations of classical schemes.The tuning of the optimization methods is carried out considering as a reference problem the antenna radiation characterization from near-field measurements over a planar geometry, using a near-field to far-field transformation method based on equivalent currents. A parametric analysis is included for each optimization method, in those cases in which it has been considered necessary, as well as theoretical field transformation results obtained with aperture and pyramidal horn antennas. Results of a comparative study, carried out using theoretical sources and measurements, demonstrate the usefulness of the method and make it possible to conclude that the particle swarm optimization is the algorithm that provides the best performance for this application.The optimization methods developed and investigated in this work have also been applied to other problems, such as the synthesis of linear arrays or the source modelling in electromagnetic compatibility applications.