Antibiotic resistance analysis (ARA) of Enterococci was used to determine sources of fecal contamination in three District of Columbia waterways: Rock Creek, the Anacostia River, and the Potomac River. These three waterways were identified as exceeding water quality standards set for fecal coliform levels and were designated by the District of Columbia to the Environmental Protection Agency's 303 (d) impaired waters list. A library profile of 1,806 enterococcus isolates from known sources was built based on antibiotic resistance patterns from thirty concentrations of nine antibiotics. These sources included human, cattle, chicken, horse, goat, sheep, deer, raccoon, muskrat, goose, seagull, coyote, duck, wild turkey, dog, and cat. Antibiotic profiles were characterized for 24 unknown enterococci isolates on each of 198 samples (38 samples from the Potomac River, 79 samples from the Anacostia River, and 81 samples from Rock Creek) collected periodically from July 2002 through April 2003. Two major storm events were also sampled during this period. These isolate profiles were compared to the known source library using logistic regression. Three dominant sources of fecal pollution were detected in the Potomac River: livestock (30%), human (29%), and wildlife (22%). Three dominant signatures were also detected in Rock Creek: horse (26%), human (26%), and wildlife (24%). Human was the only dominant source detected in the Anacostia River, averaging 43% over the sampling period. The results of this study indicate that human is a substantial contributor to the fecal contamination problems, especially in the Anacostia River, but there are significant agricultural and wildlife contributions as well. Significant and predictable seasonal variations were also detected, indicating the influence of precipitation on source distributions. The results of this study will aid the Metropolitan Washington D.C. Council of Governments in making important management decisions to help improve the water quality in and around the Washington D.C. area. Expanding the limits of ARA was also an integral part of this research. Three new and even controversial analytical techniques were run on the data collected from this project in an attempt to improve confidence and provide direction to the results of this study. The first was a comparison of the more commonly used statistical analysis model discriminate analysis (DA) with logistic regression (LR). No significant difference was found between the output of the two models for the known source libraries, therefore no suggestion could be made in favor of one model over the other. Another analytical test of the data was the introduction of a standard requiring isolates to meet a minimum of 80% similarity to the known source profiles where it was classified. With the 80% cutoff, between 41% and 44% of the isolates could not be classified to any source and were placed in an unknown category. Based on the remaining isolates, source distributions were recalculated and were not statistically different than those calculated with no restriction for isolate similarity for matching. The last major test of the data was the analysis of the library for representativeness via pulled sample cross validation and the exclusion of all duplicate patterns from the known source library. These analyses did not confirm the representativeness of the databases, but results were further analyzed based on the implications these analyses have on library based methods. / Master of Science

Keratins are a family of proteins found within human hair, skin and nails, as well as a broad variety of animal tissue. Prior research suggests hydrogel constructs of keratin and keratin derivatives exhibit several mechanical and biological properties that support their use for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. Microparticle formulations of these hydrogels are an intriguing delivery vehicle for drugs and cellular payloads for tissue engineering purposes due to the ability to exploit size, surface area, loading potential and importantly, non-invasive delivery (i.e. injection) of cells and biologics. Here we examine the water-in-oil emulsion synthesis procedure to produce keratin microparticles using an oxidized keratin derivative, keratose (KOS). Analyses of particle size, microstructure, and other characterization techniques were performed. Drug loading characteristics, release kinetics, and feasibility of use in two different microparticles was subsequently investigated, first using a model-drug and later testing an antibiotic payload on bacterial cultures to validate antibacterial applications. A suspension culture technique was developed to load bone marrow-derived mesenchymyal stromal cells (BM-MSCs), testing the capacity to maintain viability and express key protein-based factors in cell growth and development. Finally, we tested the in vitro effects of cell-loaded microparticles on the L6 skeletal muscle cell line to determine potentially beneficial outcomes for skeletal muscle tissue regeneration. Largely spherical particles with a porous internal structure were obtained, displaying hydrogel properties and forming viscoelastic gels with small differences between synthesis components (solvents, crosslinkers), generating tailorable properties. The uniquely fibrous microstructure of KOS particles may lend them to applications in rapid drug release or other payload delivery wherein a high level of biocompatibility is desired. Data showed an ability to inhibit bacterial growth in the emulsion-generated system, and thereby demonstrated the potential for a keratin-based microparticle construct to be used in wound healing applications. Dense cell populations were loaded onto particles. Particles maintained cell viability, even after freeze-thaw cycling, and provided a material substrate that supported cell attachment through the formation of focal adhesions. Finally, in vitro studies show that both KOS and BM-MSCs support varying aspects of skeletal muscle development, with combinatorial treatments of cell-loaded particles conferring the greatest growth responses. / Doctor of Philosophy / Keratins and keratin hydrogels may exhibit several properties that support their use for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. Microparticle formulations of these hydrogels are an intriguing delivery vehicle for payloads for tissue engineering purposes. Here we examine the water-in-oil emulsion synthesis procedure to produce keratin microparticles that were analyzed based on drug loading characteristics. A suspension culture technique was developed to load bone marrow-derived mesenchymyal stromal cells (BM-MSCs). Finally, we tested these products to determine potentially beneficial outcomes for skeletal muscle tissue regeneration. Particles with a porous structure were obtained. The microstructure of these particles may lend them to applications in drug release or other payload delivery. Data showed an ability to load and unload specific drug payloads. Dense cell populations were loaded onto particles. Finally, studies show that both keratin and BM-MSCs support skeletal muscle development, with combinatorial treatments of cell-loaded particles conferring the greatest growth responses.

Anthropozoonotic diseases, defined as infectious diseases caused by pathogens transmitted from humans to wildlife, pose a significant health threat to wildlife populations. Many of these pathogens are also able to move from wildlife reservoirs to humans, termed zoonotic diseases, creating the possibility for bi-directional transmission between humans and wildlife. Recent studies show that a significant proportion of emerging infectious diseases in humans originate in wildlife reservoirs and that the frequency of emergence is increasing, yet the specific transmission pathways still remain speculative in most cases. Human fecal waste is persistent across human-modified landscapes and has been identified as a potential source of disease exposure for wildlife populations living near humans. As part of a long-term study of banded mongoose (Mungos mungo) that live in close association with humans and human fecal waste I used Escherichia coli and banded mongoose (Mungos mungo) for evaluating exchange of fecal waste-borne microorganisms at the human-wildlife interface. Antibiotic resistance was found in 57.5% ° 10.3% (n=87) of mongoose fecal samples and 37.2% ° 5.9% of isolates (n=253). Multidrug resistance was detected in 13.8% ° 4.2% of isolates (n=253). Mongoose and human fecal waste isolates consistently clustered together in phylogenetic analyses and statistical analysis of genetic variation showed no significant differences (p=0.18) between E. coli from human and mongoose populations. These results suggest that human fecal waste contamination is an important mechanism for the transmission of pathogens to both humans and animals, including the spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment, an emerging global health threat. / Master of Science

The problem of conatmination in culture media for Mycobacterium tuberculosis has not been solved completely, and for this reason the work herein presented was carried out. In this work experiments were made testing the effect of actidione in inhibiting certain ones of the higher fungi.

The purpose of this problem is to determine the presence and extent of antibiotic materials as found in the oleoresins of a selected group of garden vegetables. The problem has consisted of, first, the collection and preparation of specimens of twenty-five commonly used garden vegetables; second, the extraction of the oleoresins from these; third, the determination of the inhibitory and other effects of these oleoresins against several strains of selected gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria; and fourth, the evaluation of the potentialities of these oleoresins with regard to their future use as medicinal prophylactics and therapeutics.

This investigation deals with the study of the possible antibiotic effect of oleoresins of one hundred common Texas plants upon twenty-five gram-negative bacterial organisms.

[ES] La presencia de residuos de antibióticos en la leche y los productos derivados representa un riesgo para los consumidores. Límites Máximos de Residuos (LMRs) no se han fijado para los productos lácteos y la transferencia de antibióticos de la leche a la cuajada y al lactosuero durante el proceso de elaboración del queso apenas ha sido estudiada. El objetivo de esta tesis fue evaluar la transferencia de antibióticos de la leche al queso y lactosuero, así como la validación de las características de varios métodos de cribado para la detección de antibióticos en muestras de suero de leche. En el primer estudio, el objetivo fue validar un método UHPLC-HRMS multi-residuo utilizando el analizador Orbitrap ExactiveTM, para el cribado cuantitativo de antibióticos en muestras de leche, queso fresco y lactosuero de acuerdo con los criterios especificados en la Decisión 657/2002/CE de la Comisión. El estudio de distribución mediante el método UHPLC-HRMS indicó que la mayor parte de antibióticos se transfirieron principalmente de la leche a la fracción lactosuero (hasta el 85,9%) durante la elaboración de queso. Por tanto, los porcentajes de retención de antibióticos en la cuajada fueron inferiores al 50%, excepto en el caso del ceftiofur (59,7%) y la dicloxacilina (52,8%), y muy variables entre los distintos antimicrobianos. En la mayor parte de los casos, la distribución de medicamentos no se vio afectada por la concentración de antibióticos presente en la leche, y estuvo escasamente relacionada con la lipofilicidad de los antibióticos. En el segundo estudio, se evaluaron las características de diferentes métodos de detección de antibióticos en muestras de lactosuero de acuerdo con la Decisión 657/2002/CE de la Comisión. En primer lugar, la especificidad (porcentaje de falsos positivos) y la capacidad de detección (CCß) del método de detección de inhibidores Eclipse Farm provisto del dispositivo e-Reader y de los métodos de unión a receptores 3Aminosensor, Quinosensor, Twinsensor y Tylosensor se evaluaron en muestras de lactosuero de leche de cabras, obteniendo en general, resultados similares a los obtenidos cuando se aplican para el análisis de la leche. También se evaluaron tres bioensayos en placa microtiter y respuesta dicotómica, que contenían Bacillus subtilis, Geobacillus thermocatenulatus y Geobacillus thermoleovorans, respectivamente, para ser aplicados simultáneamente con los métodos comerciales basados en la utilización de Geobacillus. stearothermophilus var. calidolactis. Elevados valores de especificidad (98-100%) se obtuvieron cuando las muestras de lactosuero fueron tratadas térmicamente (85ºC, 10 min). Bacillus subtilis, con menores valores de CCß para quinolonas y macrólidos, fue la opción más interesante para mejorar el perfil de detección del Eclipse 100. En cuanto al sistema multiplaca Screening Test for Antibiotic Residues (STAR) que utiliza cinco microorganismos diferentes (Geobacillus stearothermophilus para betalactámicos y sulfonamidas, Bacillus subtilis para aminoglucósidos, Kocuria varians para macrólidos, Escherichia coli para quinolonas y Bacillus cereus para tetraciclinas) aplicado al lactosuero, presentó una elevada especificidad (>=98%) en la mayor parte de casos. Los valores de CCß obtenidos con el protocolo STAR en muestras de lactosuero superan el LMR establecido en la leche, aunque podría representar una adecuada herramienta en la etapa de post-cribado y reducir el número de muestras destinadas al análisis cuantitativo por LC-MS/MS. La producción de queso a partir de leche con antibióticos genera residuos en el lactosuero. Por tanto, adecuados métodos de cribado para la detección de residuos de antibióticos en este importante subproducto de la elaboración del queso permitirían el establecimiento de una apropiada estrategia de control para prevenir la presencia de antibióticos en el lactosuero y, así, evitar los posibles efectos / [CA] La presència de residus d'antibiòtics en la llet i els productes derivats representa un risc per a la salut del consumidor. Límits Màxims de Residus (LMRs) no s'han fixat per als productes lactis i la transferència d'antibiòtics de la llet al formatge i al sèrum durant el procés d'elaboració del formatge quasi no s'ha estudiat. L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi va ser avaluar la transferència d'antibiòtics de la llet a les fraccions formatge i sèrum, així com la validació de la resposta de diversos mètodes per a la detecció d'antibiòtics en mostres de sèrum de llet. En el primer estudi, l'objectiu va ser validar un mètode UHPLC-HRMS multi-residu utilitzant l'analitzador Orbitrap ExactiveTM, per al garbellat quantitatiu d'antibiòtics en mostres de llet, formatge fresc i sèrum, d'acord amb els criteris especificats en la Decisió 657/2002/CE de la Comissió. L'estudi de partició utilitzant UHPLC-HRMS mètode va indicar que la major part d'antibiòtics es van transferir principalment de la llet a la fracció sèrum de llet (fins al 85,9%) durant l'elaboració de formatge. Per tant, els percentatges de retenció d'antibiòtics en la quallada van ser inferiors al 50%, excepte en el cas del ceftiofur (59,7%) i la dicloxacilina (52,8%), i molt variables entre els diferents fàrmacs. En la majoria dels casos, la distribució de medicaments no es va veure afectada per la concentració d'antibiòtics present en la llet per a la producció de formatge, i va estar escassament relacionada amb la lipofilicitat dels antibiòtics. En el segon estudi, es van avaluar les característiques de diferents mètodes de detecció d'antibiòtics en mostres de sèrum d'acord amb la Decisió 657/2002/CE de la Comissió. L'especificitat (percentatge de falsos positius) i la capacitat de detecció (CCß) d'una prova d'inhibició microbiana (Eclipse Farm acoblat al dispositiu e-Reader) i d'assajos d'unió a receptors (3Aminosensor, Quinosensor, Twinsensor i Tylosensor) es van avaluar en mostres de sèrum de llet de cabra, obtenint en general, resultats similars als obtinguts quan s'apliquen per a l'anàlisi de la llet. Es van avaluar tres bioassatjos en placa microtiter i resposta dicotòmica, que contenien Bacillus subtilis, Geobacillus thermocatenulatus i Geobacillus thermoleovorans, respectivament, per a ser aplicats simultàniament amb els mètodes comercials basats en la utilització de Geobacillus stearothermophilus var. calidolactis. Elevats valors d'especificitat (98-100%) es van obtindre quan les mostres de sèrum van ser tractades tèrmicament (85°C, 10 min). Bacillus subtilis, amb menors valors de CCß per a quinolones i macròlids, va ser l'opció més interessant per a millorar el perfil de detecció del mètode Eclipse 100. Respecte al sistema multiplaca Screening Test for Antibiotic Residues (STAR) que utilitza cinc microorganismes diferents (Geobacillus stearothermophilus per a betalactàmics i sulfonamides, Bacillus subtilis per a aminoglucòsids, Kocuria varians per a macròlids, Escherichia coli per a quinolones i Bacillus cereus per a tetraciclines), va presentar una elevada especificitat (>=98%) en la major part de casos. Els valors de CCß obtinguts amb el protocol STAR en mostres de sèrum superen el LMR establit en llet. No obstant això, aquest mètode podria convertir-se en una eina adequada en el post-garbellament per a la identificació preliminar dels residus d'antibiòtics presents en el sèrum de llet i reduir el nombre de mostres destinades a l'anàlisi quantitativa per LC-MS/MS, que és un mètode més complex i car. La producció de formatge a partir de llet amb antibiòtics genera residus en el sèrum. L'adequada prestació dels mètodes de garbellat per a la detecció de residus d'antibiòtics en aquest subproducte d'elaboració del formatge permetria l'establiment d'una estratègia de control per a evitar el risc derivat de la presència d'aquestes substàncies en el sèrum, amb efectes negatius sobre la / [EN] The presence of antibiotic residues in milk and dairy products poses a risk for consumer health, mainly the development of antimicrobial resistance. Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for veterinary drugs have not been established for dairy products. Furthermore, the transfer of antibiotics from milk to cheese and whey fractions during cheese-making has been scarcely studied and, therefore, the impact of the use of whey containing antibiotics for the manufacture of foodstuffs for human and animal consumption is unknown. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate the transfer of antibiotics from milk to cheese and whey fractions, as well as the validation of the performance of several methods to screen antibiotics in whey samples. In the first study, a multiresidue UHPLC-HRMS method using the Orbitrap ExactiveTM analyser for the quantitative screening of antibiotics in milk, fresh cheese, and whey samples was validated according to Commission Decision 2002/657/EC, using samples from three different dairy matrices (milk, fresh cheese and whey) from cows, sheep and goats. The partitioning study by UHPLC-HRMS method indicated that most antibiotics were mainly transferred from milk to whey fraction (up to 85.9%) during cheese-making. Thus, retention rates in the rennet curd fraction were lower than 50%, except for ceftiofur (59.7%) and dicloxacillin (52.8%), and very variable between drugs. In most cases, drug distribution was unaffected by the antibiotic concentration present in milk for cheese production and was poorly related to the drug lipophilicity. In the second study, the performance of different methods for screening antibiotics in whey samples was evaluated in accordance with Commission Decision 2002/657/EC, by conducting three experiments focused on commercially available screening tests, microtiter plate bioassays, and a semi-quantitative multi-plate system, respectively. Specificity (false-positive rate) and Detection Capability (CCß) of a microbial inhibitor test (Eclipse Farm coupled to e-Reader device) and receptor-binding assays (3Aminosensor, Quinosensor, Twinsensor, and Tylosensor) were evaluated in whey samples from goats, having in general, similar results than those obtained when they are applied for milk analysis. Three microtiter plate bioassays with dichotomous response containing Bacillus subtilis, Geobacillus thermocatenulatus and Geobacillus thermoleovorans, respectively, were evaluated simultaneously with commercially available tests using Geobacillus stearothermophilus var calidolactis. High specificity values (>=98%) were obtained when whey samples were heat treated (85ºC, 10 min) prior to analysis. Bacillus subtilis, having lower CCß values for quinolones and macrolides, was the most interesting option to improve the detection profile of the Eclipse 100. Regarding the multiplate system Screening Test for Antibiotic Residues (STAR) using Geobacillus stearothermophilus for ß-lactams and sulfonamides, Bacillus subtilis for aminoglycosides, Kocuria varians for macrolides, Escherichia coli for quinolones and Bacillus cereus for tetracyclines, high specificity values (>=98%) were obtained in most cases. The CCß values obtained using the STAR protocol in whey samples exceed the MRL established in milk for most of the substances considered. However, this method could become an adequate tool in post-screening and reduce the number of samples destined for the quantitative analysis by LC-MS/MS, which is a more complex and expensive method. The production of cheese using milk containing antibiotics generates drug residues in whey. Thus, the suitable performance of screening methods for the detection of veterinary drug residues in this cheese-making by-product will allow the establishment of an adequate control strategy to prevent the presence of antibiotic residues in whey and to avoid the hazards associated to human and animal health and environment. / This research forms part of the Project AGL-2013-45147-R financed by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación / Giraldo Gómez, J. (2020). Transfer of antibiotics from goat's milk to cheese and whey [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/155899

The reduced capacity of antibiotics to treat infections is one of the greatest health concerns that society faces. There is substantial evidence that links this reduced capacity with the widespread use of antibiotics in livestock production. Livestock can act as reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic resistant bacteria, which can pass resistance on in the livestock's manure. It is important to understand the fate of antibiotic resistance genes and resistant bacteria in the environment after land-application of manure-based amendments. The goal of this field-scale study was to identify the effects of soil amendments (inorganic fertilizer, compost, or raw manure) and crop cover (lettuce or radish) on sediment transfer, fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), and release of ARGs in runoff over six storm events. Two FIB (Escherichia coli and enterococci) and two ARGs (sulI and ermB) were quantified in runoff from each of the constructed plots throughout the growing season. FIB and ARGs were recovered from all plots, including control plots indicating a background level within the soil. Additionally, only the effects of variability among individual storms had an impact on the concentration of FIB in runoff. Vegetative cover and storm variability affected sediment release. A trend of higher sul1 and ermB in runoff from compost and raw manure-amended plots for at least 2 months after planting crops was observed. Only one of these ARGs (ermB) is associated with the class of drugs given to the dairy cows used for the manure and compost, indicating inherent carriage of some ARGs independent of the type of antibiotic administered, and such genes can persist in the environment. These results suggest that there is a risk of ARGs being carried into areas downgradient from agricultural plots that have been amended with compost or manure. / MS / Millions of kilograms of antibiotics are used in livestock production each year in the United States, causing concern that such widespread antibiotic use could be contributing to a decrease in effectiveness of antibiotics for treating illness in humans. The purpose of this study is to understand how antibiotic resistance might be transferred from livestock to manure into the environment and ultimately to people. This field-scale study tested the effect of soil amendment (chemical fertilizer, compost, or manure) and crop cover (lettuce or radish) on the release of fecal indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli and enterococci), sediment, and antibiotic resistance genes (sul1 and ermB) in runoff coming from agricultural plots. In part, this study helped evaluate recent US Food and Drug Administration, Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) criteria for composting to reduce pathogenic bacteria when using manure-derived soil amendment to grow food for human consumption. This study found that fecal indicator bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes were recovered in runoff from all soil amendment and vegetable types. However, there were higher levels of antibiotic resistance genes recovered in runoff from compost and manure amended soils than from fertilizer control or unamended plots during the growing season. This suggests that composting may not be effective for reducing or removing the genes that encode antibiotic resistance in runoff.

Yes / Stereoselective biocatalysis by crotonase superfamily enzymes is exemplified by use of engineered 5-carboxymethylproline synthases (CMPSs) for preparation of functionalized 5-carboxymethylproline (5-CMP) derivatives methylated at two positions (i.e. C2/C6, C3/C6 and C5/C6), including products with a quaternary centre, from appropriately-substituted-amino acid aldehydes and C-2 epimeric methylmalonyl-CoA. The enzymatically-produced disubstituted 5-CMPs were converted by carbapenam synthetase into methylated bicyclic Β-lactams, which manifest improved hydrolytic stability compared to the unsubstituted carbapenams. The results highlight the use of modi-fied carbapenem biosynthesis enzymes for production of new carbapenams with improved properties. / Medical Research Council, Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/L000121/1)

Antibiotic resistance analysis (ARA) was used to determine sources of fecal pollution in the Blackwater River in South-central Virginia. The Department of Environmental Quality designated six segments as impaired due to high fecal coliform concentrations with non-point source (NPS) agriculture the suspected source of impairment. The Blackwater River watershed encompasses 72,000 ha of dairy, beef, and intensive production agriculture, abundant wildlife populations and many homes with onsite septic systems. A library of antibiotic resistance profiles based on 30 concentrations of 9 antibiotics was developed for 1,451 enterococci isolates from human, cattle, chicken, horse, goat, sheep, deer, raccoon, muskrat, goose, duck, coyote, and wild turkey fecal samples. Each isolate was classified as human, wildlife or livestock. Correct classification rates were 82.3% for human, 86.2% for livestock and 87.4% for wildlife isolates when profiles were analyzed with discriminant analysis. Profiles were also determined for 48 isolates from 128 stream samples collected periodically from August 1999 thru April 2001 and compared to the known sources using discriminate analysis. A human signature was found at each site at least once during the year, ranging from 0.0% to 85.0% of the sample isolates. The livestock signature varied from 2.3% to 100% over sites and months, and the wildlife signature varied from 0.0% to 79.5%. The results indicate that both humans and wildlife contribute to fecal pollution in addition to the suspected source, livestock, and reducing fecal pollution will require consideration of all three sources. The results from this research are being used to develop a total maximum daily load (TMDL) project allocations for fecal coliforms in the Blackwater River. Isolates identified by ARA were also profiled using the Biolog metabolic identification system. A library of metabolic profiles was constructed from known source isolates. Stream isolates were identified by Biolog and the metabolic profile was compared to the Biolog library. Of ten stream isolates identified by ARA as human, the Biolog library identified one as human, four as livestock, and five as wildlife. Of ten isolates identified by ARA as livestock, the Biolog library identified seven as livestock and three as wildlife. Of ten isolates identified by ARA as wildlife, one was identified as human, three as livestock and six as wildlife. The overall correct classification of Blackwater isolates in the Biolog library was 14 of 30 isolates, or 47%. Although the Biolog library was constructed with some isolates from the Blackwater basin, there may not be enough isolates in the Biolog library to adequately represent the variability shown by the Blackwater isolates, resulting in lower than expected correct classifications. In spite of these results, Biolog remains promising as one of several tools with potential as a bacterial source tracking method. / Master of Science