This thesis investigates language standardization from linguistic, sociolinguistic and critical applied linguistic perspectives. It arises from my involvement with a local ex-refugee Hmong community, who asked me a few years ago to assist in an ongoing standardization project; working first on orthography establishment, then moving on to dictionary work. This work has led me to consider what directs the phenomenon, the goals and the procedures of standardization. An intricate web of ideologies, intergroup relations, linguistic considerations and practical requirements motivate and shape the course it follows. Speakers and researchers, the minority community and the dominant culture all influence its processes and outcomes. For my primary Hmong consultancy group, a strong socio-politico-religious position leads the standardization agenda, manifested particularly in the choice of a unique script. Throughout the wider Hmong community, values including orthodoxy, progressivism and nationism interact with communicative, pedagogical, scientific and technological imperatives, as well as the broader context of recent relocation to a western environment. This complex of conditions informs the salient problems and directions discussed. My approach comprises (i) a descriptive linguistic and sociolinguistic assessment of how particular aspects of language are treated in standardisation, and (ii) a post-Foucauldian investigation of how the processes of standardization are given form as possible objects of thought, discussion or action. In order to explore these questions: / (i) I ground my case study in a descriptive and analytical presentation of the language and linguistics topics most salient to standardisation. Base linguistic issues include phonology and word formation. Key language planning issues are standard dialect, orthography, lexical elaboration, tools of standardisation and dissemination. Contentions and solutions are discussed for each issue which arises, as seen from various positions from both inside and outside the Hmong-speaking community. The focuses and projects of many different subgroups are incorporated, and the local dictionary project discussed in depth. / (ii) I excavate and construct the discourse formations—that is, the structures which predispose the particular ideas, principles and directions of standardization that emerge. I examine the strategies people employ in their movement within these discourse formations, and explore how the discourses are perpetually reworked and reconstituted in the process of their actualisation during the standardization processes. / The strong orientation of this thesis on the one hand to the work and ideas of the speech community, and on the other hand to exploring the underlying structures shaping language and linguistics work, calls attention to the some of structures implicit in the research itself. Specifically, this thesis foregrounds considerations of the changing roles of researchers and speakers, the legitimation of certain kinds of knowledge, and the differences in what can be understood of the object of research depending on the discursive position of the viewer. I develop working principles which pursue diversity of viewing positions, emphasise the knowledge and perspectives of speakers, and privilege the small and particular over the dominant and central. / The thesis as a whole contributes to: • furthering current understanding of linguistic and sociolinguistic aspects of the Hmonglanguage and its standardization / • expanding linguistic theory to incorporate social conditions and discursive bases as aninextricable part of the language ecology.

Corrective feedback (CF) has been demonstrated in the literature to have a positive effect on language learners' grammatical accuracy in second-language (L2) writing. However, while much work has been done on feedback type (e.g. direct and indirect CF), studies continue to produce results which seem to contradict each other, indicating that a different focus might be useful. Moreover, much of the work on CF has been conducted with English majors or with participants studying (or preparing to study) in universities in English-speaking settings, but the generalisability of these studies to settings where English is neither the dominant language nor the learners' principal academic focus is unclear. The current study shifts the focus from type of CF to ways of facilitating CF use, exploring the issue with Korean L1 learners of English who are natural science majors at a university in South Korea taking a required English L2 writing course. The current study contributes to the body of knowledge on CF provision by quantitatively and qualitatively investigating how participants' use of feedback in this context is facilitated by their Western teachers, and how the effects of facilitated feedback use compares to effects in a group whose use of feedback is not facilitated. Working within a cognitive framework of language learning and using a quasi-experimental, mixed-methods, pre-test/post-test/delayed post-test study design, the study explores the differential effects of two ways of facilitating use of CF on the development of grammatical accuracy in written work, which was academic in style. Effects of these two methods of facilitating the use of CF are compared to effects of an unfacilitated condition. The hypothesis that learners would apply explicit knowledge to analyse and address errors in their writing, resulting in increased accuracy in the use of standard forms, is a cognitive one; and the facilitating of the interventions applies concepts from sociocultural theory. Participants in one facilitated condition received CF orally in individual conferences, with the teacher giving contingent assistance and only providing direct CF if needed; participants in the other facilitated condition received direct written CF, and were provided with worksheets designed to structure their independent reflection upon their writing. Finally, the Comparison Group received direct written CF without any facilitation. Measures of the development of accuracy focused on specific grammatical features targeted for instructional and feedback purposes, and assessed improvement in the accuracy in use of those features in new writing. The study applied a process-writing protocol: Write - Receive CF - Revise - Write a new paragraph. Effects of self-efficacy and language aptitude on the effectiveness of the treatments are also considered. Quantitative analyses of the data suggest that providing direct written CF without facilitating its use enabled the development of accuracy equally as well as CF whose use was facilitated, whether by the conferences or the reflective worksheets. Qualitative analyses reveal how teachers facilitated the use of CF in conferences, and how students participated in both forms of facilitation. Findings suggest that previous educational experience may influence learners' ability to effectively use facilitated CF. Finally, interviews with participating teachers and students provide insight into both parties' experiences with these interventions, contributing to knowledge about intervention development and implementation, both in research and in classroom settings.

This study investigates the impact of the Skills for Life Strategy (2001) on assessment practices in ESOL teaching in England, and whether these assessments resulted in any washback. In this qualitative study, the Henrichsen (1989) model of the diffusion of innovation acted as the framework to explore the assessment of ESOL students in 3 further education colleges in the UK, using interviews and observations. The research found that due to the Strategy, assessment became considerably more standardised, with the focus falling on a range of external exams, although the effects of internal measures such as Independent Learning Plans was also noted. While washback was detected, mostly in the form of changes in staff-student relationships, the ‘double accounting’ of students preparing to sit the Skills for Life exams as well as other exams, and to some degree more of a focus on accuracy in classroom work, the washback was not particularly strong. This was attributed to the timing of the study, being relatively close to the introduction of the new range of exams. The washback was also noted to be differential, namely, that the washback was not uniform across the sites studied. Factors to explain this were investigated, including the variability of the stakes for various stakeholders, features of the teachers themselves, the quality and nature of the communication of the changes and finally other factors, as suggested by the Henrichsen model. The latter suggested some distortion of the aims of assessment cause by perceived pressure to reach targets to secure funding. The results suggested there was considerable variability, leading to the conclusion that washback studies, which are vital for monitoring exams, need to avoid being simplistic and thus missing key factors which illuminate contextual detail. The nature of washback can easily be masked by superficial investigation.

女性主义和后殖民理论已于20 世纪80 年代介入翻译研究，并成为“效忠 取向”的翻译研究中的两大流派。但是，主流女性主义翻译研究和主流后殖民 翻译研究在缺乏自我反思立场的同时，在很大程度上分别体现了对种族维度和 性别维度的漠视，从而忽视了一些重要的研究问题。尽管已有极少数学者，从 结合性别和种族的后殖民女性主义视角看待了有关翻译现象，她们并没有考虑 将后殖民女性主义理论体系性地纳入翻译研究，同时也在很大程度上没有体现 自我反思。有鉴于此，本研究一方面以提出研究问题的方式，尝试体系性地将 后殖民女性主义理论纳入翻译研究，另一方面则以个案研究的方式，尝试如何 进行自我反思的后殖民女性主义翻译研究，并审视在很大程度上未被其他后殖 民女性主义学者所具体分析过的翻译现象。 在从后殖民女性主义视角提出一系列翻译研究问题之后，本研究继而选择 其中的两个问题作为个案研究对象，即考察西方女性主义出版社在出版第三世 界女性文本方面的翻译选材政治，以及西方女译者在处理第三世界女性主义文 本方面的翻译政治。在有关后殖民女性主义观点的启发下，以及在保持自我反 思立场的同时，本研究首先审视了美国女性主义出版社Aunt Lute Books 以及英 国女性主义出版社Virago Press，在翻译出版中国女性文本方面所体现的选材特 点。接着，本研究考察了美国白人女译者，在处理美籍华裔女作家严歌苓所著 《扶桑》中体现道家思想和佛教内涵的严歌苓式女性主义方面，所采用的翻译 方式。本研究表明，西方女性主义的话语殖民，西方女性主义与第三世界女性 主义之间及其背后文化理据之间的权力差异，以及相关主体所具有的白人女性 身份，以颇为复杂的形式，体现于涉及第三世界女性文本的翻译选材和翻译方 式。此外，通过上述讨论，本研究也展示了如何进行自我反思的后殖民女性主 义翻译研究，并凸显自我反思的翻译研究话语的内部冲突和暧昧之处。

翻译研究已经成为一门独立的学科，研究领域逐渐扩大，研究方法也在不 断完善；与此同时，巴赫金研究在世界范围内，也吸引了越来越多的目光和注 意力，为语言学、文学、文化研究、哲学等相关或相邻学科提供了丰富的理论 资源。在这样一个大背景下，本项研究采取了跨学科的研究模式，概念分析与个案研究相结合，力图说明巴赫金思想对翻译研究的适用性，在二者之间寻找理论挪用的契合点。 本文在回顾以往研究的基础上，提出了新的研究问题和假设，充分借鉴巴赫金思想，分析和解释与翻译相关的诸多问题和现象。本文提出从基于表述的主体间言语交际来看翻译过程，从杂语的角度来分析原文和译文，从声音的角 度来看译者的叙述在场及其主体性实现，从对话的角度来看翻译中涉及主体之间的主体间性，从声音和杂语的角度来思考翻译与身份认同的问题，从而对于我们理解翻译过程的实质、理解翻译过程的艰难、理解翻译中译者的主体性与翻译中的主体间性、理解翻译与身份认同的关系等等，试图提供可行的分析模 式和有意义的思考路径。在这个意义上来说，本项研究对于推进翻译研究具有一定的理论贡献。同时，本文借助文学翻译、电影字幕翻译等实际个案 (特别是台湾作家王祯和的长篇小说《玫瑰玫瑰我爱你》英语译本)，印证本文提出的分析模式的有效性和可行性。

“陌生化”(defamiliarization) 理论是二十世纪初俄国形式主义者Viktor Shklovskij 所提出。根据该理论，文学文本包含作者出于文学动因而扭曲常规语 言所致的偏离语言，这种语言被称为陌生化语言。陌生化语言除具有特殊文体效果外，还被用来深化文本的社会文化主题意义,历来是译者和翻译研究者关注 的对象。然而，由于受源语导向对等论和形式主义美学的束缚，以往研究者讨论文学陌生化语言翻译时带有约简和片面的倾向。他们只重形式而轻视或忽视 陌生化语言的文化意义，忽视目的语文本文化语境的特殊性，以致认为译者应该且可以通过“偏离对偏离”仿造陌生化形式、实现文学性对等。鉴于此，本研究深入分析跨文化语境下两种语言间的形式差异和文化意识形态差异对陌生 化语言翻译的影响，揭示从“偏离对偏离”到“陌生化形式仿造”再到“文学 性对等”这一推导的粗疏和内在矛盾，以此来批驳文学陌生化语言翻译就是要 仿造形式、再现文学性的观念。在此基础上，本文探讨了文学陌生化语言的几种翻译策略，提出这些策略并非转达文学性或文化意义，而是导致交互文化杂合，生成交互文化意识形态。 除绪论和结论外，全文共六章。第一章对陌生化理论作了整体介绍，第二 章主要关注有关源陌生化语言的阐释学，第三章着重讨论语言间的形式差异和目的语文本语境对仿造陌生化形式的制约，第四章和第五章探讨文化差异对源 陌生化语言翻译的影响以及不同翻译策略的文化意义生产，第六章讨论语言文 化差异使源陌生化语言翻译成为杂合，生产交互文化意识形态。本研究以理论 探究为主，以实例阐明为辅，采用多学科相融合 (multidisciplinary) 的研究方法，借鉴了英汉对比、文学理论、符号学和文体学等学科概念和/或理论原则。

近年来翻译研究中的重要话题，如文化翻译、后殖民、女性主义、意识形 态、翻译的主体性和主体间性等，或多或少都与译者身份及其认同的问题有着 直接或间接的关联。身份的概念在翻译研究中虽被一再提及，却仍缺乏清晰的界定，有待深入探讨。 通过借鉴并整合社会心理学有关身份理论的假设和分析，本文在梳理评论相关研究成果的基础上对译者身份进行动态分析，由此提出译者身份的三种类型，即角色身份、群体身份和个人身份。本文首先从社会角色入手探讨译者的 角色身份和角色期待与阐释，以及翻译角色间的互动对话等相关问题，提出翻译主体间的角色互动以内部多重对话为主要形式，译者则通过角色扮演达成内部对话。随后，本文以性别身份为例探讨译者的群体身份，运用身份选择理论讨论在女性主义、性别与翻译结合的过程中出现的译者性别身份的不同表现形式，并特别考察了译者在翻译活动中的性别表演行为。再者，本文从译者主体创造性的角度出发讨论译者个人身份，以从事翻译活动的作家为例，系统阐述 了译者在再创作中表现出的与原作者之间创作与模仿的杂合冲突。随后，本文的重点转移至考察译者文化认同与民族国家的集体身份在翻译中的重新建构之间的关系，通过案例分析阐释译者在译文中表现出提升自我文化身份的倾向， 说明集体身份的改写与译者的个体认同的密切关系。此外，译者身份的社会期待与个体内化、身份杂合、多重身份的承诺和选择、身份表演、角色对话等一 系列相关问题本文亦有所涉及。 除了借鉴和改造社会心理学的身份理论并应用于翻译研究，本文还进行了大量的实证研究，包括D.H.Lawrence 的《狐》的三个中文译本的平行对比，美籍华裔作家谭恩美的《沉没之鱼》的中文译写现象和文本分析，《无题的风景》英译的译者注释分析，以及互联网自发翻译现象分析等，不仅作为对本文所提论点的有力支撑，同时还有助于扩展、深化和强化相关的理论话语。

1895－1911 年这一时期，是中国翻译史上第三次翻译高潮。现有的中国翻译史研究成果，由于受到各自的研究对象以及研究者自身的局限，均未能对这一断代史进行充分的研究。本文采取文化研究的视角，尝试建立一个新的理论模式――翻译社会学模式，即考察翻译场域中，翻译这一话语生产活动，如何在受到意识形态制约的 同时，通过不同途径（其中特别是通过主体性）获得各种资本，尤其是符号象征资本，对现有意识形态（尤其是主流意识形态）产生作用。在此基础上，对这一时期的文学翻译，特别是小说的翻译，加以研究。 本文认为：翻译这一社会行为，不仅是语言之间而是处在特定的历史语境之中的转换活动，因而势必会受到当时意识形态的制约；同时，翻译作为一种话语生产活动，亦会因此生产新的意识形态话语。由此，翻译与意识形态之间存在着一种互动关系。 本文采取纵横相结合的方法：首先从纵的即历史的跨度，考察这一时期翻译行为所处的社会文化语境，从文化史与思想史的高度，概述这一时期的翻译史特征，史论结合，以史为辅，以论为主。其次，截取其中某个时间横断面，对这一时期具有代表性的论者与译者，进行深入的个案分析（包括梁启超、林 纾、苏曼殊、周氏兄弟），希冀通过以点带面的方式，微观（文本分析）与宏观（文化研究）相结合，以微见著，从微观中看出宏观来，同时又能高屋建瓴， 从宏观解释微观，总结该时期的翻译活动的特征与规律。

翻译行为一直伴随人类活动。翻译理论却往往是“一堆意见”。翻译操控论正是这样一个值得争论的命题。 本文以翻译研究的语言学转向、文化转向和史学转向为背景，以赫曼斯的翻译操控论为理论架构，研究翻译过程中的意识形态作用，以便于理解翻译过程中的译者主体作用或操控行为。 本文拾起严复和鲁迅的老话题，是希望每次阅读都创造出不同于以往的历史主义的关怀和方法，以便在现在和历史的对话中加深对过去的理解，从中演绎出新意，进而服务于将来。在翻译实践中，严复和鲁迅实施两种截然 不同的翻译操控。本文通过具体的文本比对和译界传统的追溯研究，解读多元因素作用下的翻译实践，回答了前人(例如梁实秋)尚未解决的鲁迅硬译的缘由，贯穿了翻译的操控历史和历史在操控中进化的主题，同时也疏理了操控阵营的理论要点。赫曼斯所代表的操控学派缘起于具有激进倾向的因素作用研究，同时又强调中立描述的稳健立场。这为该派开展翻译规范研究和尝试普遍适用的理论假设提供了转机。鉴于意识形态缺乏恒定值，造成特殊性的普遍存在和普遍性的假想性质，操控学派中的因素论锐气渐弱，规范研究却力度渐强。籍此，本文在以下几个方面做了积极的论证。一、意识形态有若干特征，其关键特征是一时之态。理解意识形态的这种动态变化有利于减少意识形态的一时失态，促进意识形态的相互宽容和相互借鉴。二、本文将翻译操控论施诸严复和鲁迅的个案，界定了“信、达、雅”的“游移性、不确 定性、隐喻性、延异性”，从而揭示了“信、达、雅”变量的可选性、指导翻译实践的方向性和译者自主把握尺度的灵活性。三、在翻译操控论形成之前就有翻译的操控实践。只是在翻译中，操控乏力有碍交流，操控过度就超出了翻译范畴，操控适当才能有利于思想交流。本文指出，译员不操控等于不作为，不利于文本的认知、解读和阐释。查翻译操控论的未来走向，规范研究将促使翻译操控论转变激进立场，或者至少可以由规范研究来把握操控的信度和效度。

在基督教群體中，《聖經》向來被視為上帝的話，享有絕對的權威。 翻譯《聖經》的工作皆以忠於原文為首要目標。不同語言的《聖經》譯 本的數量早已成為古今中外譯本之冠。近一百多年來，基督教中文《聖經》的翻譯工作持續不斷，新的譯本相繼問世。這些譯本都宣稱以忠於原文為翻譯目的、比舊的譯本更忠實可信。然而《聖經》的原文早已遺失，不同譯本依據的源文又各有不同，譯本宣稱忠於原文的各種說法，不免有名不符實之嫌；而所謂忠信，亦是一個非常複雜的變動而相對的概念。本文擬採用描述性翻譯研究的方法，借用安德烈•勒菲弗爾 (André Lefevere) 的理論，嘗試從意識形態、詩學、贊助人三方面，探討聲稱以忠信為翻譯目標的當代《聖經》中文譯本在翻譯過程中對原文的操縱情況，揭示《聖經》中文譯本名為忠信、實為操縱的翻譯現象。