Astrophytum asterias (star cactus) and Lophophora williamsii (peyote) are sympatric species in the Tamaulipecan thornscrub of South Texas and adjacent Mexico. Peyote has been excavated from two archaeological sites: Shumla Caves, Texas, and CM-79 in Coahuila. We report new radiocarbon dates: a mean of 5195 ± 20 14C years BP for the Shumla Caves specimens, and 835 ± 35 14C years BP for the CM-79 specimen. The Shumla Caves specimens were not intact peyote tops, but manufactured effigies thereof. Published data on the geographic ranges of L. williamsii and A. asterias are of varying quality and accuracy. We report the results of extensive research to document extant U.S. populations by county, drawing specific conclusions about where each species currently occurs, where its occurrence is uncertain and where it is unlikely, based on herbarium specimens, verifiable reports in the primary literature and interviews with knowledgeable individuals. Dwindling of populations of peyote is partly due to improper harvesting, namely cutting off the top of the plant so deeply below ground level that the plant is unable to regenerate new stems, and consequently dies. We describe the anatomy of the cactus shoot (stem) and root, and suggest how this new knowledge can be utilized to determine "how deep is too deep" to cut if harvesting of peyote is to be done sustainably. We report the first population genetics study on endangered A. asterias, with five microsatellite markers in populations sampled at four locations in South Texas. A battery of tests and measurements indicated that in most populations heterozygosity was high, F-statistics were low, and Nm was >1. With one exception, these populations appear not to be undergoing excessive inbreeding, despite small population sizes. Data from two L. williamsii microsatellite loci are presented. L. williamsii, which reproduces autogamously, exhibits a single homozygous genotype within a given population. West Texas L. williamsii plants differ from South Texas plants in the identity of the single allele (or single genotype) at each locus. The ability of microsatellite markers to separate West Texas from South Texas plants suggests utility of microsatellites for infraspecific taxonomic studies in Lophophora.

This thesis aims at investigating whether archaeobotanical investigations, combined with geochemical (phosphate) and geophysical (magnetic susceptibility) soil surveys, can provide valid data concerning the functional aspects of several burnt mounds detected in County Cavan, Ireland, during the realignment of a local road (N3 between Cavan Town and Belturbet). The results show that the methods can indeed be used to gain data concerning the formation, use and post-depositional aspects governing the nature of these sites. With the exception of one site (which is proven by the analyses not to represent “traditional” burnt mound activities) the sites display indications of animal produce processing as well as some sparse evidence for cereal based activities. The results are not entirely conclusive but indicate that an extended archaeobotanical, geochemical and geophysical investigation coupled with further analyses with methods belonging to environmental archaeology (such as palynology and insect analysis) may potentially be very useful in providing comprehensive information concerning the function of burnt mound sites in County Cavan and Ireland in general.

Astrophytum asterias (star cactus) and Lophophora williamsii (peyote) are sympatric species in the Tamaulipecan thornscrub of South Texas and adjacent Mexico. Peyote has been excavated from two archaeological sites: Shumla Caves, Texas, and CM-79 in Coahuila. We report new radiocarbon dates: a mean of 5195 ± 20 14C years BP for the Shumla Caves specimens, and 835 ± 35 14C years BP for the CM-79 specimen. The Shumla Caves specimens were not intact peyote tops, but manufactured effigies thereof. Published data on the geographic ranges of L. williamsii and A. asterias are of varying quality and accuracy. We report the results of extensive research to document extant U.S. populations by county, drawing specific conclusions about where each species currently occurs, where its occurrence is uncertain and where it is unlikely, based on herbarium specimens, verifiable reports in the primary literature and interviews with knowledgeable individuals. Dwindling of populations of peyote is partly due to improper harvesting, namely cutting off the top of the plant so deeply below ground level that the plant is unable to regenerate new stems, and consequently dies. We describe the anatomy of the cactus shoot (stem) and root, and suggest how this new knowledge can be utilized to determine "how deep is too deep" to cut if harvesting of peyote is to be done sustainably. We report the first population genetics study on endangered A. asterias, with five microsatellite markers in populations sampled at four locations in South Texas. A battery of tests and measurements indicated that in most populations heterozygosity was high, F-statistics were low, and Nm was >1. With one exception, these populations appear not to be undergoing excessive inbreeding, despite small population sizes. Data from two L. williamsii microsatellite loci are presented. L. williamsii, which reproduces autogamously, exhibits a single homozygous genotype within a given population. West Texas L. williamsii plants differ from South Texas plants in the identity of the single allele (or single genotype) at each locus. The ability of microsatellite markers to separate West Texas from South Texas plants suggests utility of microsatellites for infraspecific taxonomic studies in Lophophora.

The here presented PhD project explores the phenomenon of cereal cultivation during the Iron Age (c. 500 BC – AD 1100) in southern Scandinavia. The main body of the thesis consists of four articles. These were written with the aim to identify chronological, geographical, theoretical and methodological gaps in current research, to develop, apply and evaluate approaches to how new knowledge on Iron Age cereal cultivation can be attained, and to assess the interaction between archaeobotany and other specialisms currently used in settlement archaeology. The introduction section of the thesis also contains a historical overview of archaeobotanical research on cereal cultivation in southern Scandinavia. The first article is a compilation and summary of all available previously performed  archaeobotanical investigations in southern Sweden. This data is compared and discussed in relation to similar publications in Denmark and smaller scale compilations previously published in Sweden. The main result of the study is an updated and enhanced understanding of the main developments in the investigation area and a deepened knowledge of local development chronologies and trajectories in different parts of southern Sweden. The second article is a methodological presentation of a multiproxy analysis combining plant macrofossil analysis, phosphate analysis, magnetic susceptibility analysis and measurement of soil organic matter by loss on ignition. The applicability of the method for identification and delineation of space functions on southern Scandinavian Iron Age sites is discussed and illustrated by two case studies from the Danish site of Gedved Vest. Particular focus is placed on exploration of the use of the functional analysis for assessment of taphonomic and operational contexts of carbonised plant macrofossil assemblages. The third article aims at presenting an Iron Age cereal cultivation history for east-central Jutland, an area identified at the outset of the project as under-represented in archaeobotanical studies. The article combines data from depth analyses of material from the sites of Gedved Vest and Kristinebjerg Øst (analysed with the methods and theory presented in the second article) with a compilation of previously performed archaeobotanical analyses from east-central Jutland. The main results of the study are that developments in the study area appear to follow a chronology similar to that previously observed on Funen rather than the rest of the peninsula. Rye cultivation is furthermore discussed as more dynamic and flexible than previously presented in Scandinavian archaeobotanical literature. The fourth and final article leaves archaeobotany as the main topic. It focuses instead on evaluating, theorising and expanding the multiproxy method presented in the second article by a thorough comparison of the botanical, geochemical and geophysical methods to other techniques of functional analysis currently used in archaeology. These techniques include studies of artefact distributions, assessments of spatial relations between settlement features, and studies of the structural details of dwellings and other constructions. The main result is that there is a correspondence between the functional indications provided by botanical, geochemical and geophysical methods and techniques used in mainstream archaeology. The comparison furthermore shows that a combination of the two data sets allows for more highly resolved functional interpretations than if they are used separately. The main conclusion of the PhD thesis, based on the discussions in all four articles, is that archaeobotanical questions commonly necessitate the assessment of non-botanical archaeological material. The comparison of archaeobotanical data to other segments of the archaeological record does, however, enable the use of the former as an archaeological resource for addressing non-botanical questions. The increased understanding of (mainly settlement) site dynamics resulting from this integration of methods allows archaeobotanists to address increasingly complex botanical questions. Increased and more structured integration between archaeobotany and other specialisms operating within the framework of settlement archaeology is therefore argued to be the preferred approach to performing both high quality archaeobotany and settlement archaeology.

Research on the origins of agriculture in western Asia has placed great emphasis on the location and pace of domestication. However, much less attention has been given to reconstructing the specific nature and social implications of early cultivation practices across the agricultural transition, and to the potentially varied land management strategies involved. By employing a functional ecological approach to the interpretation of arable 'weed' taxa associated with early cultivars, this research addresses this gap in archaeobotancial research by enabling detailed analysis of the growing conditions and farming methods involved in early plant cultivation in western Asia. The core methodology analyses the functional ecological attributes (e.g. leaf area and thickness; canopy dimensions; stomatal density and distribution) of the relevant arable weed taxa isolated from archaeological contexts to determine the specific growing conditions of early crops and hence the nature of management practices. Functional attributes are morphological or behavioural characteristics that predict species' potential in relation to major environmental variables, such as soil productivity, disturbance and moisture. Statistical analysis incorporating these attributes is used to explore variation amongst early cultivation contexts and compare them with weed survey data from contrasting (semi-)arid modern regimes, including a recent study of traditional cereal farming in Morocco. Ecological 'signatures' were determined using the isolated weed dataset from four well documented and contextually rich Pre-Pottery and Pottery Neolithic sites, which were strategically selected to explore agricultural strategies from its initial stages through to the established Neolithic, as well as to exploit detailed sample-by-sample data and extensive in situ deposits. The sites investigated are PPNA Jerf el-Ahmar and PPNA/EPPNB Dja'de in northern Syria, PPNB Tell Aswad in southern Syria, and PPN-PN Çatalhöyük in Central Anatolia. Refined identification of selected weed genera at these sites enabled more accurate indications of their arable ecologies. The results generated suggest that early farming practices were highly variable within sites, reflecting the specific affordances of local climate and surrounding landscapes, but relatively labour-intensive in comparison with later urban agrosystems. Furthermore, there are indications for greater cultivation intensity over time, as households became more autonomous.

This dissertation reassesses earlier economic models of the agricultural systems of the Early Islamic period (c. 636–1099 CE) in the Levant in light of new empirical archaeological evidence. In the four journal articles that comprise this dissertation, I investigate the variability of agricultural economies at four Early Islamic sites in modern-day Israel through the analysis of archaeobotanical remains (seeds, fruit, plant parts, wood charcoal). In the first article, I analyze botanical remains from the coastal city of Ashkelon. I identify the suite of crops and agricultural practices employed, reconstruct local practices of arboriculture, and describe non-local plants available through regional trade. Spatial analyses identify private grain storage, preferred constructional materials, and the discrete separation of household and refuse space. Such analyses provide insights into the intersection of agricultural and artisan economies in an urban setting. In the second article, I combine historical and archaeological evidence to investigate arboriculture at Ashkelon. Arboriculture, the cultivation of long-lived perennial tree and vine crops that provide long term harvests of fruit, can be understood as investment in land and urban development. Integrated analysis of historical and archaeobotanical evidence indicates that the inhabitants of Ashkelon specialized in arboriculture as a means to supply both subsistence and craft economies. In the third article, I investigate the production and consumption of agricultural plant products at the coastal city of Caesarea Maritima. Spatial analysis of wood and non-wood plant remains, features, and artifacts reveals cereal processing debris across multiple rooms in a former warehouse, revealing a socioeconomic shift from a storage area to a crop processing space. Such a shift aligns with similar patterns of diversified uses of space that characterize the Early Islamic period in which the focus of economic production shifted away from export to local consumption. In the fourth article, I investigate how farmers’ agricultural choices were driven by political, social, and environmental conditions. Through an intersite analysis of archaeobotanical assemblages from four archaeological sites—coastal Ashkelon and Caesarea Maritima, and inland Tel Shimron and Neby Zakaria—I determine that production and consumption of plant resources are affected more by a settlement’s socioeconomic function than by its environmental setting. / 2023-09-01T00:00:00Z

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