<p>A theoretical study of the interaction between supernovae and their surroundings is presented.</p><p>Supernovae are the endpoint of the life of massive stars, and are the dominant contributors to the chemical evolution of the Universe. During its life a massive star greatly modifies its environment. During and after the explosion of the star it interacts with its surroundings in a number of ways. A study of this interaction yields invaluable information about the late stages of stellar evolution and the physics of supernova explosions. Recent advances in observational facilities have given a wealth of observational data on interacting supernovae, and it is therefore essential to have good theoretical models for interpreting the data.</p><p>This thesis presents an overview of the physics of supernovae and of their interaction with a circumstellar medium. In particular the reverse shock created by the interaction is investigated. In most Type IIL and Type IIn supernovae this shock is radiative, and due to the high temperature most of the radiation comes out as X-rays. A numerical model is presented which calculates the emission from the cooling region behind the reverse shock in a self-consistent way, by combining a hydrodynamic model with a time-dependent ionization balance and multilevel calculations. This has been applied to some of the best cases of circumstellar interaction.</p><p>As a further application of the model the radio and X-ray emission from Type IIP supernovae is discussed. We estimate the mass loss rate of the progenitors of Type IIP supernovae, and find that a superwind phase is not required.</p><p>VLT observations of the ring of SN 1987A show broad optical emission lines coming from a range of ionization stages, in particular optical coronal lines of Fe X-XIV. Models of the line emission indicate that the lines are formed by cooling shocks with shock velocities in the range 310-390 km/s, confirming the picture of shocks striking the protrusions from the ring obliquely.</p><p>X-ray observations of the Type IIb SN 1993J and Type IIn SN 1998S are analyzed. For SN 1993J we find that the spectrum is best fit with a CNO-enriched composition. For SN 1998S we find that the high metal overabundance that has previously been claimed, is not necessary when a self-consistent model of the cooling region is applied.</p>

<p>Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are sporadic flashes of light observed primarily in the gamma-ray band. Being the brightest explosions in the Universe since its birth, they are at present also the furthest astronomical sources detected. Since their serendipitous discovery in the late 1960s the study of GRBs has grown into one of the most active fields in astrophysics with ramifications in many other scientific areas.</p><p>Despite intense studies many of the basic questions about the nature of GRBs remain unanswered. Long duration bursts are believed to be the result of ultra-relativistic outflows associated with the collapse of very massive stars. The mechanisms responsible for the emission, the geometry of the emitter, and the radiative processes involved are still a matter of research. Common multi-pulse bursts display a spectral evolution as complex as their light curves. However, it is unclear what produces the observed variability. The works presented in this thesis aim to build the necessary base to answer these open questions.</p><p>A characterization of the spectral evolution is presented (based on time-resolved spectral analysis) that provides insight into the underlying emission processes and imposes severe constraints on current physical models (Paper I).</p><p>We report the results of a multi-variate analysis on a broad range of GRB physical parameters covering temporal and spectral properties. Empirical relations were found that indicate a self-similar property in burst light curves and a luminosity correlation with potential use as a distance indicator (Paper II).</p><p>Determining the relevant timescales of any astronomical phenomenon is essential to understand its associated physical processes. Linear methods in time-series analysis are powerful tools for the researcher that can provide insight into the underlying dynamics of the studied systems. For the first time these methods were used on GRB light curves correcting for cosmic time dilation effects which revealed two classes of variability. The possible origin of these classes is discussed (Papers III & IV).</p>

<p>The last decade has seen huge advances in studies of astrophysical cosmology, primarily as a result of developments in telescopic facilities. One of the primary observational signatures of actively star forming galaxies in the distant universe is the Lyman-alpha emission line (Lyα). The line is used either to search for objects or as a spectral feature for definite redshift confirmation. In recent years, high-z Lyα surveys have been used to constrain cosmic star formation history, investigate large scale structure, and examine the neutral hydrogen fraction of the universe. This doctoral thesis is directly concerned with studies of the Lyα emission from star-forming galaxies and the validity of Lyα as a cosmological tool.</p><p>The approach is to study a sample of local actively star forming galaxies using data obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Imaging observations have been performed in the Lyα line, Hα, and various continuum bandpasses in the ultraviolet and optical wavelength domains. Sophisticated tools have been developed for the analysis of the images, resulting also in theoretical exploration of Lyα-related observables from galaxies at high-z. Model simulations are presented, along with a methodology by which to interpret high-z survey data. HST imaging results call into question the interpretations of many high-z Lyα surveys. More specifically, the first direct observational evidence is presented for the emission of Lyα photons after resonant scattering in neutral hydrogen and low surface-brightness Lyα halos are found as a result. Imaging reveals Lyα morphologies that systematically differ from morphologies probed by stellar light or non-resonant tracers of the nebular gas. Based upon Hα observations and recombination theory, the fraction of Lyα photons that escape is found never to exceed 20% in any of the observed targets, despite the violent star-formation known to be taking place. Even after internal dust corrections, a deficit from the predicted Lyα/Hα line ratio is always found. The interpretation is that scattering events systematically enhance the probability of absorption of Lyα by dust grains. If these galaxies are representative of those that fall into the data-sets of high-z Lyα surveys, some cosmological estimates may be in error by an order of magnitude.</p>

A theoretical study of the interaction between supernovae and their surroundings is presented. Supernovae are the endpoint of the life of massive stars, and are the dominant contributors to the chemical evolution of the Universe. During its life a massive star greatly modifies its environment. During and after the explosion of the star it interacts with its surroundings in a number of ways. A study of this interaction yields invaluable information about the late stages of stellar evolution and the physics of supernova explosions. Recent advances in observational facilities have given a wealth of observational data on interacting supernovae, and it is therefore essential to have good theoretical models for interpreting the data. This thesis presents an overview of the physics of supernovae and of their interaction with a circumstellar medium. In particular the reverse shock created by the interaction is investigated. In most Type IIL and Type IIn supernovae this shock is radiative, and due to the high temperature most of the radiation comes out as X-rays. A numerical model is presented which calculates the emission from the cooling region behind the reverse shock in a self-consistent way, by combining a hydrodynamic model with a time-dependent ionization balance and multilevel calculations. This has been applied to some of the best cases of circumstellar interaction. As a further application of the model the radio and X-ray emission from Type IIP supernovae is discussed. We estimate the mass loss rate of the progenitors of Type IIP supernovae, and find that a superwind phase is not required. VLT observations of the ring of SN 1987A show broad optical emission lines coming from a range of ionization stages, in particular optical coronal lines of Fe X-XIV. Models of the line emission indicate that the lines are formed by cooling shocks with shock velocities in the range 310-390 km/s, confirming the picture of shocks striking the protrusions from the ring obliquely. X-ray observations of the Type IIb SN 1993J and Type IIn SN 1998S are analyzed. For SN 1993J we find that the spectrum is best fit with a CNO-enriched composition. For SN 1998S we find that the high metal overabundance that has previously been claimed, is not necessary when a self-consistent model of the cooling region is applied.

Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are sporadic flashes of light observed primarily in the gamma-ray band. Being the brightest explosions in the Universe since its birth, they are at present also the furthest astronomical sources detected. Since their serendipitous discovery in the late 1960s the study of GRBs has grown into one of the most active fields in astrophysics with ramifications in many other scientific areas. Despite intense studies many of the basic questions about the nature of GRBs remain unanswered. Long duration bursts are believed to be the result of ultra-relativistic outflows associated with the collapse of very massive stars. The mechanisms responsible for the emission, the geometry of the emitter, and the radiative processes involved are still a matter of research. Common multi-pulse bursts display a spectral evolution as complex as their light curves. However, it is unclear what produces the observed variability. The works presented in this thesis aim to build the necessary base to answer these open questions. A characterization of the spectral evolution is presented (based on time-resolved spectral analysis) that provides insight into the underlying emission processes and imposes severe constraints on current physical models (Paper I). We report the results of a multi-variate analysis on a broad range of GRB physical parameters covering temporal and spectral properties. Empirical relations were found that indicate a self-similar property in burst light curves and a luminosity correlation with potential use as a distance indicator (Paper II). Determining the relevant timescales of any astronomical phenomenon is essential to understand its associated physical processes. Linear methods in time-series analysis are powerful tools for the researcher that can provide insight into the underlying dynamics of the studied systems. For the first time these methods were used on GRB light curves correcting for cosmic time dilation effects which revealed two classes of variability. The possible origin of these classes is discussed (Papers III &amp; IV).

The last decade has seen huge advances in studies of astrophysical cosmology, primarily as a result of developments in telescopic facilities. One of the primary observational signatures of actively star forming galaxies in the distant universe is the Lyman-alpha emission line (Lyα). The line is used either to search for objects or as a spectral feature for definite redshift confirmation. In recent years, high-z Lyα surveys have been used to constrain cosmic star formation history, investigate large scale structure, and examine the neutral hydrogen fraction of the universe. This doctoral thesis is directly concerned with studies of the Lyα emission from star-forming galaxies and the validity of Lyα as a cosmological tool. The approach is to study a sample of local actively star forming galaxies using data obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Imaging observations have been performed in the Lyα line, Hα, and various continuum bandpasses in the ultraviolet and optical wavelength domains. Sophisticated tools have been developed for the analysis of the images, resulting also in theoretical exploration of Lyα-related observables from galaxies at high-z. Model simulations are presented, along with a methodology by which to interpret high-z survey data. HST imaging results call into question the interpretations of many high-z Lyα surveys. More specifically, the first direct observational evidence is presented for the emission of Lyα photons after resonant scattering in neutral hydrogen and low surface-brightness Lyα halos are found as a result. Imaging reveals Lyα morphologies that systematically differ from morphologies probed by stellar light or non-resonant tracers of the nebular gas. Based upon Hα observations and recombination theory, the fraction of Lyα photons that escape is found never to exceed 20% in any of the observed targets, despite the violent star-formation known to be taking place. Even after internal dust corrections, a deficit from the predicted Lyα/Hα line ratio is always found. The interpretation is that scattering events systematically enhance the probability of absorption of Lyα by dust grains. If these galaxies are representative of those that fall into the data-sets of high-z Lyα surveys, some cosmological estimates may be in error by an order of magnitude.

Solar transient phenomena such as solar flares and coronal mass ejection are some of the most energetic and explosive phenomena affecting the solar environment. Emission signatures within solar flares provide direct insight into the physical mechanisms involved in the flaring process as well as the role the magnetic field topology plays in the energy release and particle transport within flares. Specifically, the work here addresses the temporal and spatial relationships between ultraviolet and hard X-ray flare emissions while also addressing the relationship between hard X-ray emission evolution in flares and the development of quasi-separatrix layers (QSLs) within the magnetic structure of the flaring region. As a final component, we address the implications of pre-event solar conditions such as magnetic configuration and flare productivity on the particle composition of solar energetic particle (SEP) events seen at 1AU. Specifically, we find that co-spatial and co-temporal UV and hard X-ray emission expected in 1-D loop flare models only account for a portion of the observed flare emission, and a complete explanation of the flaring process must take into account more complex and time-varying magnetic topologies along with contributions from multiple physical processes. Finally, we find, for particle events, that closed magnetic configurations at higher energies result in higher average Fe/O enhancements while the amount of open field and the active region appear to have no direct relationship to the observed SEP compositions.

Solar prominences are transient phenomena in the solar atmosphere that display highly dynamic activity and can result in dramatic eruptions, ejecting a large amount of material into the heliosphere. The dynamics of the prominence plasma reveal information about its interaction with the magnetic field of the prominence, while the eruptions are associated with coronal mass ejections, which greatly affect space weather near Earth and throughout the solar system. My research on these topics was conducted via observational analyses of the partially-ionized prominence material, its composition, and the dynamics over time in prominences that range in activity from quiescent to highly active. The main results are evidence that (1) in quiescent prominences, neutral He is located more in the lower part of the structure, (2) a higher level of activity in prominences is related to a mixing of the material, and (3) an extended period of high activity and mixing occurs prior to eruptions, possibly due to mass loading. In addition, innovative modifications to analytical techniques led to measurements of the material's mass, composition, and small-scale dynamics.

The T Tauri stars (TTSs) are young, solar-type stars which display many spectral pecularities. Understanding the magnetic properties of TTSs is a key to make sense of their curious behaviors. First, high resolution optical and infrared (IR) echelle spectra are analyzed to measure the surface magnetic field of the classical T Tauri star (CTTS) TW Hydrae. Key stellar parameters are determined from detailed spectrum synthesis of atomic and molecular absorption features in the optical, and then modeling the line profiles of the four magnetically sensitive Ti I lires in the K band yields the average magnetic field on TW Hydrae. Extensive Monte Carlo tests are performed to quantify systematic errors in the analysis technique, finding that reasonable errors in the effective temperature or surface gravity produce around 10% uncertainty in the magnetic field measurements. Then a similar analysis technique is applied to detect strong magnetic fields on 5 additional stars in the TW Hydrae Association (TWA) as well as 14 TTSs in the Orion Nebula Cluster (ONC). We combine these measurements with previous measurements of 14 stars in Taurus to study the potential evolution of magnetic field properties during the first 10 million years of stellar evolution. In addition, to probe the magnetic geometry on the surface of TW Hydrae, high resolution circular spectropolarimetry of this star is analyzed to measure the net longitudinal magnetic field. Significant polarization is detected on the final night of six consecutive nights of observing, but no net polarization is seen on other nights. This longitudinal field detection is still much lower than that which would be consistent with a dipole geometry on the stellar suface. On the other hand, strong circular polarization is detected in the He I lambda5876 and Ca II lambda8498 emission lines, indicating a strong field in the line forming regions of these features. Overall, strong magnetic fields of kG level are commonly found among TTSs and the magnetic configuration is probably not a simple dipole as current magnetospheric accretion theories assume. With magnetic pressure likely dominating over gas pressure in the stellar photospheres, the entire stellar surfaces could be covered with magnetic fields, and this might be responsible for the underproduction of the X-ray emission of TTSs. It is also suggested that these large-scale magnetic fields could be of a primordial origin.

Supersonic jets and shocks play an important role in numerous astrophysical phenomena, ranging from stellar formation to active galactic nebulae (AGN). Laboratory astrophysics opens up new avenues for research into these jets and shocks, and computer simulations show great promise in linking laboratory and astronomical data. To date, the most effective codes for the laboratory environment are not readily available and lack magnetic fields, a key component in astrophysical jets and future magnetized laboratory experiments. Also no 3D simulation code has had its non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) cooling, essential for generating emission maps for comparison with astronomical observations, rigorously tested against an accepted baseline. The focus of this dissertation research was to improve an existing magneto-hydrodynamic code, AstroBEAR, to better model jets and shocks in laboratory and astrophysical environments, with the ultimate goal of developing a code that can link astronomical and laboratory data. The work outlined in this dissertation facilitates the connection between astronomical and laboratory data in two areas. First, we added a multiple material and non-ideal equation of state capability into AstroBEAR to handle the high density ionized plasmas that characterize laboratory astrophysics experiments and now have the first working 3D MHD code capable of simulating the laboratory environment. We used AstroBEAR in 2.5 D hydrodynamic mode to simulate a series of experiments carried out on the OMEGA laser, and compared the simulations with experimental data. Secondly, we improved AstroBEAR's handling of radiative cooling, specifically in the post-shock cooling zones prevalent in many astrophysical jets. The first ever validation tests of a 3D code against a fully non-LTE 1D radiative cooling atomic code show explicitly that AstroBEAR correctly models post-shock radiative cooling down to the resolution and micro-physics limits. We used this improved cooling to simulate the HH 110 jet and conclude from these simulations that any model of stellar jet formation must be able to produce processing and pulsing outflow. Overall the improvements of AstroBEAR's ability to handle jets and shocks in the laboratory and astrophysical environments position it to potentially link observational data with magnetized laboratory experiments.