Thesis (M.S.)--Ball State University, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 33-35). Also available online (PDF file) by a subscription to the set or by purchasing the individual file.

Thesis (M.S.)--Ball State University, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 33-35).

Sixty-eight collegiate female distance runners in the state of Virginia responded to a questionnaire and completed four-day dietary records designed to assess their dietary practices and understanding of human nutrition as it relates to athletic performance. Sixty-four percent of the runners had been competing competitively for five or more years. Questions were concerned with their understanding of the basic food groups, energy substrates. fluid-electrolyte replacement, vitamin and mineral supplements and the pregame meal. The responses indicated that female distance runners had a limited understanding of nutrient energy sources. The runners' score on questions pertaining to carbohydrate foods and carbohydrate as a source of energy for athletic performance were higher than scores on questions pertaining to protein and fat. Approximately one-third of the females believed that drinks containing electrolytes were more beneficial than water in replacing fluids. Vitamin and mineral supplements were believed to enhance performance by sixty percent of the athletes. Analysis of the four-day dietary records indicate that of the 11 vitamins and minerals evaluated only B₆ and iron intakes were lower than two-thirds of the recommended levels. Analysis of their diets using a Food Group score based on the Four Food Group Guide suggested that their relatively high nutrient intakes were not based on a selection of food for their nutrient values, but were due to higher than average calorie intakes. The results indicated no apparent relationship between nutrition knowledge and dietary practice. This study indicated that athletes need more information on sound nutritional practices as they relate to performance. / M. S.

Typescript (photocopy). / Digitized by Kansas Correctional Industries

Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Although it is common knowledge that regular exercise has many beneficial effects on the human body, it is also true that many highly competitive athletes neglect their health for the sake of performance. With this as a general objective for the study, women athletes of the Matie Athletics Club were recruited as subjects and were monitored and tested for several health-related parameters. Current results indicate that, although the average total cholesterol (TC) concentrations of the group were within normal ranges, quite a number of the sprint and field athletes had TC values regarded as a cardiovascular risk (> 5.2 mmol.l"). Serum testosterone levels of the sprint and field athletes were also higher than those of the distance athletes, but a correlation between TC and testosterone was not established. In general, cholesterol intake of women athletes was within the recommended daily allowance (RDA) prescriptions. The high-density lipoprotein fraction was also within the norm, but a better chemical pathological range had been expected. All haematological parameters were within the normal ranges of distribution, but the red blood cell count, haemoglobin concentration and hematocrit were on average lower than the standard average for females. Athletes, quite often, have higher plasma volumes than average and this can disguise normal haematological values and is described as sport anaemia. The current study has also indicated an iron deficiency (83% RDA) in the diet of female athletes in general. Thus the relatively low observed red blood cell count could not necessarily be attributed to sport anaemia. The energy intake was also poor and did not comply with the energy needs of the athletes. Bone mineral density (BMD) and plasma electrolytes were normal. Distance athletes had a higher BMD of the hip compared to the lumbar spine area. This is probably related to the stress to the hip associated with running. A correlation was observed between TC and BMD of the hip of eumenorrheal and amenorrheal athletes, which had not been observed before. The influence of the phase of the menstrual cycle on the immune system is controversial, and the results of the thesis confirm those of other studies that indicated no influence. In addition, it has been shown that the exogenous ingestion of glutamine, before the onset of exercise, can increase the plasma concentration thereof, and that the formerly observed decline (also seen in the current study) after intense exercise can be totally neutralized. This had not been reported before. The physiological significance of this has not been established, but the assumption is that a continuous adequate supply of glutamine will benefit the immune cells with regard to its reaction to pathogens. As reported by others, it has been shown that the ingestion of 5% glucose during long duration exercise eases the stress on the immune system, as both leucocytes and cortisol levels were attenuated compared to intake of a placebo. A new discovery, however, was that the ad libitum ingestion of glucose was not enough to produce desired significant results. The importance of this finding may have practical implications with regard to desirable amounts of glucose supplementation during races. In conclusion: Female athletes of club performance level are on general in a healthy condition, but are not excluded from the risk with regard to cholesterol. The screening of TC alone is insufficient with regard to competitive athletes, unless the sub-fractions are screened as well during routine medical examinations. Adjustments with regard to the energy and iron content of the diet are suggested. Supplementation of glutamine and glucose before and during exercise could be beneficial to the immune system. More studies with regard to the association of cholesterol with BMD are recommended. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Alhoewel dit algemeen bekend is dat oefening groot voordele vir die gesondheid van die liggaam inhou, is dit ook so dat atlete wat hoogs kompeterend is hul gesondheid kan verwaarloos ten koste van prestasie. Dit was die oorkoepelende doel van hierdie studie om vroue-atlete van die Maties Atletiekklub as proefpersone te toets en te monitor vir verskeie gesondheidsverwante parameters. Huidige resultate dui daarop dat alhoewel die gemiddelde totale cholesterol (TC) van die groep binne die normale grense was, 'n hele aantal van die naelloop- en veldatlete het TC gehad wat oor die grens was wat as 'n risiko (> 5.2 mmol.l") vir kardiovaskulêre verwante siektes beskou kan word. Serumtestosteroon-konsentrasie van die naelloop- en veldatlete was ook hoër as dié van die langafstandatlete, maar dit het nie gekorrileer met TC nie. In die algemeen was die cholesterolinname van vroue-atlete binne die aanbevole dieettoelaag (ADT) voorskrifte. Die hoë-digtheid-lipoproteïenfraksie was ook binne die normale, maar nie volgens verwagting in 'n meer gunstige chemies-patalogies gebied van verspreiding nie. Alle hematologiese parameters was binne die normale grense, maar die gemiddelde rooibloedseltelling en hemoglobienkonsentrasie, asook die hematokrit was deurgaans laer as die standaard gemiddeld vir dames. Atlete het heel dikwels hoër plasmavolumes as normaal en dit kan normale hematologiese tellings verbloem en word beskryf as sportanemie. Die huidige studie het egter ook getoon dat 'n ystertekort (83% ADT) in die dieet algemeen in vroue-atlete kan voorkom en daarom kan die relatief lae rooiseltellings nie noodwendig aan sport anemie toegeskryf word nie. Die energie-inname was ook laag en het nie aan die energiebehoeftes voorsien nie. Beenmineraaldigtheid (BMD) en plasma-elektroliete was normaal. Langafstandatlete het 'n hoër BMD van die heupbeen teenoor die werwelkolom getoon wat waarskynlik verband hou met die stres wat deur hardloop op die heupbeen geplaas word. 'n Verband is ook gevind tussen die BMD van die heup en TC van eumenorreale en amenorreale atlete wat nie vantevore waargeneem is nie. Die invloed van die fase van die menstruale siklus op die immuunstelsel is kontroversieel en die bevindinge in die tesis dra by tot die stawing van studies wat geen invloed bevind het nie. Voorts is getoon dat die eksogene inname van glutamien voor die aanvang van oefening, plasmaglutamien kan verhoog en dat die verlaging daarvan, wat voorheen (asook in die huidige studie) na intense oefening waargeneem word, geheel en al teengewerk kan word. Dit is nog nie vantevore waargeneem nie, en mag 'n fisiologiese voordeel inhou vir die immuunselle ten opsigte van hul reaksie op patogene. Dit is huidig, ook soos voorheen, aangetoon dat die inname van 5% glukose tydens langdurige oefening die stres wat op die immuunsisteem geplaas word, verminder word. Dit, omrede beide die leukosiete en kortisolkonsentrasies laer was in vergelyking met 'n plaseboproefneming. 'n Nuwe bevinding is egter dat die onvoorgeskrewe inname van glukose nie genoegsaam is om dieselfde insiggewende resulaat te toon nie. Die belang van hierdie bevinding mag praktiese gevolge hê vir die gewenste voorskrifte van glukose-inname tydens wedlope. In opsomming: Vroue-atlete van klubprestasiegehalte is oor die algemeen gesond, maar is nie vrygespreek van risiko in terme van cholesterol nie. Die monitering van TC alleenlik is onvoldoende in kompeterende atlete en die subfraksies moet derhalwe deel wees van roetine ondersoeke. Dieetaanpassings ten opsigte van die energie- en ysterinhoud kan aanbeveel word. Supplementasie van glutamien en glukose voor en tydens oefening respektiewelik, kan voordelig wees vir die immuunsisteem. Verdere studies word aanbeveel in terme van die verbande tussen cholesterol en BMD.

Iron status and dietary iron intake were examined in thirteen non-anemic menstruating competitive female cyclists training greater than 150 miles/week. Serum ferritin was 37.6 ± 49.1 ng/ml (mean ± SD), iron stores were 241 ± 92 and serum iron was 124.0 ± 64. Four subjects (30.8%) presented with iron deficiency, 30.7% had iron stores less than zero mg and 23.1% had iron stores less than -100 mg. Mean energy intake was 1625 ± 376 Kcal. Mean total iron intake (food + multivitamins) was 18.8 ± 6.9 mg/day, and absorbable iron intake was 1.5 ± 1.2 mg/day. Seven athletes (47%) consumed less than the RDA (18 mg/day) while 73% (11) consumed less than 1.8 mg/day of absorbable iron. The results suggest that insufficient iron intake, either total or absorbable, contributes to a high prevalence of iron deficiency among female cyclists.

Graduation date: 1995

The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of abnormal eating behaviors and weight control techniques in female collegiate varsity athletes at Ball State University. A modified version of the The Michigan State University (MSU) Weight Control Survey was the instrument which was used to survey the athletes. Data were collected from 79 athletes, who represented six sports (field hockey, gymnastics, softball, tennis, track & field, and volleyball). The mean age of subjects was 20.0 years. Multivariate tests of significance were conducted to see whether or not there were any statistical differences among athletes according to their sport participation. Height was the only variable that revealed statistical significance (p=.002). Body Mass Index (BMI) showed that 63 (80.7%) athletes fell into the desirable range of 19-24 for person's aged 19 through 24 years. A total of 49 (63.0%) athletes reported that they had attempted to lose weight during the preceding year. Approximately 80% of respondents believed diet pills, vomiting, laxatives, diuretic pills, fasting and drinking less fluids to be dangerous weight loss methods. Eating fewer snacks, exercising more, and counting fat grams were the most common methods of weight control that had been tried. Thirteen athletes reported that they had used at least one (fasting, vomiting, laxatives, diet pills, syrup of ipecac, and/or drinking less fluids) harmful method to control body weight. / Department of Physiology and Health Science

The purpose of this study was to determine the nutrition knowledge and dietary intake before and after the implementation of a nutrition education program among university female cross country runners. The nutrition education program consisted of three, onehour sessions comprised of the following topics: general diet recommendations including carbohydrate, fat, protein, and the five food groups, iron status, fluids and hydration, amenorrhea, calcium intake and its effect on bone mass, and pathogenic weight control. Female cross country runners from Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, and Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana served as the experimental groups, and Anderson University, Anderson, Indiana served as the control group. Teaching materials including outlines, handouts, and discussion questions were developed, presented, and distributed at each session. Evaluation of nutrition knowledge was completed through a pre-test, and post-test which consisted of 22 multiple choice / true/false questions. The nutrition education program significantly increased the nutrition knowledge for the experimental group (n = 9) from a mean pre-test score of 11.22 +/- 4.74 to a mean post-test score of 15.44 +/- 3.88. The quiz was developed with questions from two other quizzes used in previous research including Worme, et al., (1990) and Barr (1986) as well as a few additional questions developed by the primary investigator. Dietary intake was evaluated using three-day diet records prior to the nutrition education program and immediately following. In addition, three experimental subjects and three control subjects completed follow-up diet records one month following the nutrition education program but was not included in the data analysis. There were no significant changes in any of the 21 nutrients assessed; however, there were a few which approached statistical significance including thiamin (p<0.0528), dietary fiber (p<0.0865) and saturated fat (p<0.0737). Participants in the study seemed very receptive to the chosen topics but was especially interested in the topic of amenorrhea. Although not asked, four subjects did report that amenorrhea had been a problem- in the past including one subject who still had the problem. The primary investigator feels the educational program had a positive affect on the subjects. It is important to educate athletes about nutrition and the effects on health, especially young females involved with sports in which body weight has an influence on performance. This study could be repeated in the future to further study dietary intake and how nutrition education affects eating behaviors over a long period of time in this population. / Department of Home Economics

Competitive ice skating is a sport in which thinness is stressed and is expected of these athletes. This obsession with thinness leads to decreases in body weight, psychological effects, and eating disorders. This study sought to investigate whether there was a relationship between body image, dietary intake, iron status, percent body fat, and menstrual dysfunction in 11 to 16 year old female ice skating competitors in the United States. Little research has been conducted with ice skaters in the area of body image. However, ice skaters, ballet dancers, and many other athletic groups are involved in an area of our culture in which a lean body image is encouraged.The experimentally accessible population for this study included those U.S. competitive ice skaters attending the Sports Medicine and Science Testing Program at the Indiana World Skating Academy. The target population included females ages 11 to 16.Statistical analysis of the data revealed:(1) A significant relationship between thiamin, calcium, and riboflavin intake and eating attitude test score (body image) in female ice skaters, ages 11-16.(2) A significant relationship between menstrual dysfunction and the weights of female ice skaters, ages 11 to 16.When dietary records were evaluated, the mean caloric intake of the skaters was low at 1781 calories. Caloric intakes were 445 calories less than estimated necessary to support normal growth (Benson et al, 1985). None of the vitamin levels fell below 96% of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), however, minerals which were less than 75% of the RDA included calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc and potassium. There were more than 14 participants who consumed greater than 100% of the RDA for vitamin C, vitamin E, folacin, vitamin B-12, niacin, riboflavin and thiamin.Of the 19 participants who participated in hematological assessment, four were found to have an impaired iron status. The contributor to this low iron state may have been poor dietary iron consumption, as 10 of the 20 skaters consumed less than 67% of the RDA for iron.The participants' body image, measured by the Eating Attitude Test (EAT), revealed that two participants had scores greater than 30, indicative of eating disorders.The participant's age may have played a role in the tendency towards an eating disorder, for when age was correlated with EAT scores, a positive relationship existed, indicating that as age increased, the tendency towards an eating disorder increased.Training has posed enormous changes on the body composition of these female ice skaters. Ranges of 21.5% to 25.4% body fat are expected for the age group of 11 to 16. However, 71% of the ice skaters had a body fat less than 22%, and 38% of the skaters had a body fat less than 17%.This study identified numerous menstrual dysfunctions in among the participants as 9 of the 21 participants had irregular menses, and 4 have never menstruated and their ages were 15, 14, 13 and 11. The weights of these ice skaters may have a role in the menstrual dysfunctions, as a significant relationship was found between menstrual dysfunctions and the weights of these skaters. Those participants who had never menstruated, had four of the five lowest weights at 72 lbs, 90 lbs, 95 lbs, and 103 lbs. Those participants who had irregular menses, had weights below 117 lbs.The data indicated the main concerns about the diets of subjects in this study were the low caloric, calcium, and iron intakes. Ice skaters need to be aware of the benefits of a "normal caloric" intake, which can provide adequate amounts of calcium and iron in the diet. In addition, an adequate caloric intake could increase body weights of the ice skaters, and help alleviate amenorrhea and associated health complications. / Department of Home Economics