Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Alkyl radicals are powerful intermediates for the generation of carbon-carbon bonds, which play an indispensable role in the synthesis of natural products, pharmaceuticals, and pesticides. Traditionally, there are two main methods for the generation of alkyl radicals. The first is C-H bond functionalization via hydrogen-atom-transfer (HAT). HAT processes have been used as an effective approach for selectively activating C-H bonds via radical pathways. The other strategy to explore the generation of alkyl radicals is C-X bond functionalization via halogen-atom-transfer (XAT). Alkyl halides are one of the largest classes of building blocks in synthesis and they can be obtained from the corresponding alcohols. The most straightforward and effective way to form such alkyl radicals is the direct homolytic cleavage of C-X bonds. In past decades, photoredox catalysis has emerged as a powerful and greener tool for the synthesis of radicals under mild reaction conditions, which has brought tremendous attention. Although remarkable success has been made in this field, some methods still require costly transition metal catalysts or toxic reagents. Herein, we display a series of visible light-induced approaches under transition-metal free conditions or using earth-abundant metals. These novel photo-induced transformations and corresponding mechanistic work will be discussed in the following order: We will first present our work on metal-free visible-light-promoted C(sp3)-H functionalization of aliphatic cyclic ethers using trace O2. This reaction uses a trace amount of aerobic oxygen as the sole green oxidant under blue light at room temperature to achieve the synthesis of sulfone and phosphate derivatives in good to excellent yields using cyclic ethers and vinyl sulfones. Then, we report on a photo-induced C(sp3)-H chalcogenation of amide derivatives and ethers via a ligand-to-metal charge-transfer. This reaction converts secondary and tertiary amides, sulfonamides, and carbamates into the corresponding amido-N,S-acetal derivatives in good yields, using an earth abundant metal catalyst under mild conditions. Finally, we present a photoredox polyfluoroarylation of alkyl halides via halogen atom transfer. This method converts primary, secondary, and tertiary unactivated abundant alkyl halides into the corresponding polyfluoroaryl compounds in good yields and has good functional group compatibility.

Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) is a controlled/living polymerization process used to synthesize polymers with controlled molecular weight and narrow polymer distributions. Control of these key parameters allows for the fabrication of well-defined macromolecular structures, a necessary tool for the synthesis of advanced materials. Since its discovery in 1995, ATRP has received considerable interest and widespread adoption from the academic community. Unfortunately, it faces several complex challenges which have hindered its full scale commercialization, mainly its high catalyst loadings to obtain fast reaction kinetics. One of the premises of this research project was to augment the slow reaction rates of ATRP while using extremely low catalyst concentrations. A hybrid ATRP system was employed which encompassed the fast reaction kinetics associated with conventional free radical processes, with the attractive control features of ATRP. When high free radical initiator concentrations in the range of 0.1 M to 0.2 M were used in concert with ATRP, fast reaction rates were realized, while maintaining a polymerization with living characteristics. Conversions of 81% (0.117M) and 91% (0.234M) were achieved within 2 hours as compared to typical ATRPs where achieving such conversions would take up to 24 hours. For those same free radical initiator loadings (0.117M and 0.234M) the reaction demonstrated living characteristics with molecular weight growing in a linear fashion with respect to increasing monomer conversion. Despite the high free radical initiator concentration, the polymer distribution remained relatively narrow, not exceeding a polydispersity of 1.30. Chain extension experiments from a synthesized macroinitiator were successful which demonstrated the living characteristics of the hybrid ATRP process. The aforementioned polymerizations were conducted with various copper concentrations. Catalyst concentrations as low as 16 ppm (0.234mM) were found to be effective, i.e. one catalyst mediated the growth of over 100 polymer chains, and thus saving post polymerization purification. Moreover, the expensive ligand cost could be cut dramatically through a nearly 100 time reduction in the ligand concentration for these polymerizations. A hybrid ATRP system was used as a unique method to determine termination rate coefficients of MMA at 70°C as a function of both conversion and chain length. A three dimensional composite map was developed to elucidate the coupling effects of both conversion and chain length on the termination rate coefficient over a total range of data which can be used for modelling systems of this nature. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

The flavin-containing monoamine oxidases (MAO) A and B catalyze the oxidative deamination of primary and secondary amines. The overall process involves a two electron oxidation of the amine to the iminium with concomitantreduction of the flavin. Based on extensive studies with a variety of chemical probes, Silverman and colleagues have proposed a catalytic pathway for the processing of amine substrates and inactivators by MAO-B that is initiated by a single electron transfer (SET) step from the nitrogen lone pair to the oxidized flavin followed by α-proton loss from the resulting amine radical cation that leads to a carbon radical. Subsequent transfer of the second electron leads to the reduced flavin and the iminium product. In the case of N-cyclopropylamines, the initially formed amine radical cation is proposed to undergo rapid ring opening to form a highly reactive primary carbon centered radical that is thought to be responsible for inactivation of the enzyme. In this thesis we have exploited the unique substrate and inactivator properties of 1,4-disubstituted tetrahydropyridine derivatives to probe the mechanism of MAO-B catalysis. Reports of the parkinsonian inducing neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) as a structurally unique substrate of MAO-B initiated these studies. Consistent with the SET pathway, the N-cyclopropyl analog of MPTP proved to be an efficient time and concentration dependent inactivator but not a substrate of MAO-B. On the other hand, the 4-benzyl-1-cyclopropyl analog is both a substrate and inactivator of MAO-B. These properties may not be consistent with the obligatory formation of a cyclopropylaminyl radicalcation intermediate. In an attempt to gain further insight into the mechanism associated with the MAO catalyzed oxidation of 1,4-disubstituted tetrahydropyridines, deuterium isotope effects studies on both the substrate and inactivation properties of the 4-benzyl-1- cyclopropyl derivative were undertaken. A series of 1-methyl- and 1-cyclopropyltetrahydropyridine derivatives bearing various heteroaro-matic groups at C-4 also have been examined. The MAO-B substrate properties, inactivator properties and partition ratios for these compounds together with preliminary results from chemical model studies are discussed in terms of the MAO-B catalytic pathway. / Ph. D.

Many pathogenic bacteria can enter phagocytic cells and replicate in them, and these intracellular bacteria are difficult to treat because the recommended antibiotics do not transport into the cells efficiently. Examples include food-borne bacteria such as Salmonella and Listeria as well as more toxic bacteria such as Brucella and the Mycobacteria that lead to tuberculosis. Current treatments utilize aminoglycoside antibiotics that are polar and positively charged and such drugs do not enter the cells in sufficient concentrations to eradicate the intracellular infections. We have developed core-shell polymeric drug delivery vehicles containing gentamicin to potentially overcome this challenge. Pentablock and diblock copolymers comprised of amphiphilic nonionic polyether blocks and anionic poly(sodium acrylate) blocks have been complexed with the cationic aminoglycoside gentamicin. The electrostatic interaction between the anionic polyacrylates and the cationic aminoglycosides form the cores of the nanoplexes, while the amphiphilic nature of the polyethers stabilize their dispersion in physiological media. The amphiphilic nature of the polyethers in the outer shell aid in interaction of the nanoplexes with extra- and intra-cellular components and help to protect the electrostatic core from any physiological media. This thesis investigates the electrostatic cooperativity between the anionic polyacrylates and cationic aminoglycosides and evaluated the release rates of gentamicin as a function of pH. / Master of Science

1,8-bis(phenylimino)-3,6-ditertbutyl-carbazole is synthesized and characterized, which can be complexed with copper(II) halide by deprotonation and transmetallation. The resulting copper complexes enable to polymerize MMA through RATRP process.

In the frame of this thesis different calix[4]resorcin- and calix[4]pyrogallolarene derivatives were used as platform for the synthesis of novel star polymers and dendritic structures. The objectives of this work can be portrayed under the following points: First: Synthesis and modification of calix[4]resorcin- and calix[4]pyrogallolarenes with a varying number and varying type of functional sites and their precise characterization by modern NMR techniques and single crystal X-ray diffraction. Second: Synthesis of well-defined star polymers and dendrimers with different number of arms and accordingly dendrons, based on calix[4]resorcin- and calix[4]pyrogallolarenes, via convenient polymerization and generation growth reactions and analysis of the obtained products by different methods (MALDI-TOF-MS, SEC-RI and SEC-MALLS, NMR).

The aim of this work was to successfully prepare polymers of N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide, (PHPMA) using controlled/"living" free-radical polymerisation technique. For this purpose, atom transfer radical polymerisation (ATRP) and reversible addition-fragmentation (chain) transfer (RAFT) polymerisation were used in preparation of a number of base polymers with the intention of quantitatively converting them into PHPMA. Both methods were applied under varying polymerisation conditions, and the kinetics of the systems investigated. Various rate constants were measured, while computer modelling of the experimental data allowed estimation of other kinetic parameters of interest. Investigations into solvent and ligand effects on the kinetics of ATRP of the activated ester methacryloyloxy succinimide (MAOS) and one of the archetypal methacrylate monomers, methyl methacrylate (MMA) were carried out. The method of RAFT was also employed in polymerisation of MAOS and a number of other monomers in the hope of finding the best synthetic precursor of PHPMA. Polymers of methacryloyl chloride (MAC) and p-nitrophenyl methacrylate (NPMA) were prepared, as well as the polymers of HPMA itself and N-isopropyl methacrylamide. Polymerisation of MMA by RAFT was also attempted in view of adding to current knowledge on the monomer's behaviour and the kinetic characteristics of its RAFT polymerisation. Preparation of PHPMA from PMAOS, PMAC and PNPMA was attempted. Successful preparation of PHPMA from the polymer of the acid chloride was achieved under mild reaction conditions, while displacement of N-hydroxysuccinimide groups of PMAOS resulted in unexpected modification of the polymer under the conditions used. Conversion of PNPMA into PHPMA was not achieved. At this stage these results suggest inadequacy of both PMAOS and PNPMA as reactive polymeric precursors.

Plusieurs mécanismes de polymérisation radicalaire contrôlée (PRC) sous irradiation lumineuse ont récemment été développés. Ces approches offrent potentiellement de nombreux avantages, en permettant notamment d’introduire dans le mécanisme des PRCs certaines caractéristiques propres aux photopolymérisations, tels que les contrôles spatial et temporel de la réaction. Les travaux de thèse présentés dans ce manuscrit s’inscrivent dans ce contexte, en ayant pour objectif le développement et l’étude d’un nouveau mécanisme de polymérisation radicalaire par transfert d’atome (ATRP) photocatalysée. Après une étude bibliographique présentant l’état de l’art dans le domaine des PRCs sous irradiation lumineuse (chapitre 1), un complexe de bis(1,10-phenanthroline) cuivre (I) (Cu(I)) est utilisé comme catalyseur pour la synthèse de poly(méthacrylate de méthyle)s bien définis par ATRP menée sous l’irradiation d’une lampe LED bleue de faible intensité (chapitre 2). Le mécanisme proposé implique la formation de l’état excité Cu(I)* à partir de Cu(I) sous irradiation, suivie de sa désactivation oxydative par les composés bromés, générant les espèces actives propagatrices et la forme désactivante du complexe Cu(II). Le cycle catalytique est ensuite complété par l’ajout de triethylamine comme agent réducteur permettant la régénération in situ de la forme activante Cu(I) du complexe et conduisant ainsi à une polymérisation plus rapide. Le méthacrylate de glycidyle est ensuite considéré comme comonomère jouant simultanément le rôle d’un agent réducteur (chapitre 3). Des copolymères fonctionnels bien définis, avec une distribution contrôlée de groupes latéraux époxydes, sont ainsi synthétisés. Enfin, le mécanisme d’ATRP photocatalysé est amélioré en développant une procédure permettant la génération in situ de la forme activante Cu(I) en partant d’un complexe Cu(II) stable en présence d’air (chapitre 4). Le mécanisme ainsi développé présente une bonne tolérance à la présence d’oxygène ou d’inhibiteur dans le milieu réactionnel. Les effets de plusieurs paramètres (intensité lumineuse, concentration en ligand et nature du solvant ou du contre-ion) sont étudiés, suggérant un échange de ligand photo-induit comme processus photochimique additionnel impliqué dans le mécanisme d’ATRP photocatalysé étudié. / Several mechanisms of controlled radical polymerization (CRP) under light irradiation have been recently developed. These approaches offer potentially numerous advantages, enabling especially to introduce in the mechanism of CRPs some features characteristic of photopolymerizations, such as the spatial and temporal controls of the reaction. The PhD work presented in this manuscript comes in this framework, aiming at developing and studying a new mechanism of photocatalyzed atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). After a bibliographic study presenting the state-of-the-art in the domain of CRPs under light irradiation (chapter 1), a bis(1,10-phenanthroline) copper (I) complex (Cu(I)) is used as catalyst for the synthesis of well-defined poly(methyl methacrylate)s by ATRP carried out under the irradiation of a low intensity blue LED lamp (chapter 2). The proposed mechanism implies the formation of the excited state Cu(I)* from Cu(I) under irradiation, followed by its oxidative quenching by the brominated compounds, generating the growing active species and the deactivator form of the complex Cu(II). The catalytic cycle is then completed by the addition of triethylamine as a reducing agent enabling the in situ regeneration of the activator form of the complex Cu(I), therefore leading to a faster polymerization. Glycidyl methacrylate is then considered as a comonomer playing simultaneously the role of a reducing agent (chapter 3). Well-defined functional copolymers, with a controlled distribution of epoxide side groups, are thus synthesized. Finally, the photocatalyzed ATRP mechanism is improved by developing a procedure permitting the in situ generation of the activator Cu(I) starting directly from an air-stable Cu(II) complex (chapter 4). The mechanism developed in this way exhibits a good tolerance to the presence of oxygen or inhibitor in the reaction medium. The effects of several parameters (light intensity, ligand concentration and nature of the solvent or counter-ion) are studied, suggesting a photo-induced ligand-exchange as an additional photochemical process implied in the studied photocatalyzed ATRP mechanism.

The research reported in this thesis was carried out in Brisbane, Australia and Calgary, Canada. The aim of the research conducted in Brisbane was to prepare a series of copper(I) and ruthenium(II) based complexes incorporating a hemilabile phosphine ligand and to determine whether or not these compounds possessed catalytic activity. The history, uses, properties and recent work incorporating hemilabile phosphine ligands is discussed in detail as well as the application of hemilabile ligands to atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and the usefulness of the 'windscreen wiper' action of these ligands in polymerization. The literature synthesis and characterization of four hemilabile phosphine ligands is reported with modifications. The (2-chlorophenyl)diphenylphosphine ligand was prepared via a Grignard reaction giving a 11% yield. The (2-bromophenyl) diphenylphosphine ligand was prepared by reaction of 2-bromoiodobenzene with Ph2PSiMe3 in the presence of a palladium catalyst (MeCN)2PdCl2 which yielded 50% product. The 1-chloro-2-diphenylphosphinoethane ligand was prepared following the generation of a lithium diphenylphosphide which was added to 1,2-dichloroethane to give a 43% yield of product. The (2-benzoic-acid)diphenylphosphine ligand was prepared by hydrolysis of (2-methyl-ester-phenyl)diphenylphosphine. Following acidification of the methyl ester phosphine with HCl, the desired product was isolated in 88% yield. The synthesis and characterization of a series of copper(I) based complexes incorporating the prepared phosphine ligands involved reaction in CH3CN of the appropriate ligand with copper halides as starting material. Solution state 31P NMR and mass spectrometry were used to study many of these complexes in the solution state, whilst microanalysis, 31P CP MAS NMR and single crystal X-ray diffraction studies were used to study their solid state properties. The complexes of the type bis(2-halophenyl)diphenylphosphine copper halide were found to be three coordinate with non-chelating ligands and to be isostructural with the previously studied bis(2-methylphenyl)diphenylphosphine copper halide complexes. The synthesis and characterization of ruthenium(II) based complexes incorporating hemilabile phosphine ligands involved reaction of the appropriate ligands in MeOH with RuCl3.3H2O or RuCl2(DMSO)4 as the ruthenium source. Modes of characterization included solution state 31P NMR, mass spectrometry, microanalysis and single crystal X-ray diffraction studies. All ruthenium(II) based complexes were found to incorporate the hemilabile ligands in a chelating mode resulting in 6 coordinate structures. The preliminary polymerization testing of MMA in the presence of the copper(I) and ruthenium(II) based complexes has been reported. All complexes successfully polymerized the monomer and the resulting polyMMA showed polydispersity values ranging from moderate (3.1) to very high (6.7). Chapter 7 discusses research conducted over a 6 month period at the University of Calgary, Canada under an International Resident Fellowship award. This work involved the synthesis and characterization of scandium(III) and yttrium(III) based complexes incorporating a chelating amido-imine ligand, as potential olefin polymerization catalysts.

Copper-catalyzed regeneration in atom transfer radical addition (ATRA) utilizes reducing agents, which continuously regenerate the activator (CuI) from the deactivator (CuII) species. This technique was originally found for mechanistically similar atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and its application in ATRA and ATRC has allowed significant reduction of catalyst loadings to ppm amounts. In order to broaden the synthetic utility of in situ catalyst regeneration technique, this was applied in copper-catalyzed atom transfer radical cascade reaction in the presence of free radical diazo initiators such as 2,2���-azobis(isobutyronitrile) (AIBN) and (2,2���-azobis(4-methoxy-2,4-dimethyl valeronitrile) (V-70), which is the first part of this dissertation. This methodology can be translated to sequential ATRA/ATRC reaction, in which the addition of CCl4 to 1,6-dienes results in the formation 5-hexenyl radical intermediate, which undergoes expedient 1,5-ring closure in the exo- mode to form 1,2-disubstituted cyclopentanes. When [CuII(TPMA)Cl][Cl] complex was used in conjunction with AIBN at 60 0C, cyclic products derived from the addition of CCl4 to 16-heptadiene, diallyl ether and N,N��-diallyl-2,2,2-trifluoroacetamide were synthesized in nearly quantitative yields using as low as 0.02 mol% of the catalyst (relative to 1,6-diene). Even more impressive were the results obtained utilizing tert��-butyl-N,N-diallylcarbamate and diallyl malonate using only 0.01 mol% of the catalyst. Cyclization was also found to be efficient at ambient temperature when V-70 was used as the radical initiator. High product yields (>80%) were obtained for mixtures having catalyst concentrations between 0.02 and 0.1 mol%. Similar strategy was also conducted utilizing unsymmetrical 1,6-diene esters. It was found out that dialkyl substituted substrates (dimethyl-2-propenyl acrylate and ethylmethyl-2-propenyl acrylate) underwent 5-exocyclization producing halogenated g-lactones after the addition of CCl4 in the presence of 0.2 mol% of [CuII(TPMA)Cl][Cl]. Based on calculations using density functional theory (DFT) and natural bond order (NBO) analysis, cyclization of 1,6-diene esters was governed by streoelectronic factors. <br>As a part of broadening the synthetic usefulness of in situ copper(I) regeneration, scope was further extended to sequential organic transformations. Based on previous studies, copper(I) catalyzed [3+2] azide-alkyne cycloaddition is commonly conducted via in situ reduction of CuII to CuI species by sodium ascorbate or ascorbic acid. At the same time, ATRA reactions have been reported to proceed efficiently via in situ reduction of CuII complex to the activator species or CuI complex has been fulfilled in the presence of ascorbic acid. Since the aforementioned reactions share similar catalyst in the form of copper(I), a logical step was taken in performing these reactions in one-pot sequential manner. Reactions involving azidopropyl methacrylate and 1-(azidomethyl)-4-vinylbenzene in the presence of a variety of alkynes and alkyl halides, catalyzed by as low as 0.5 mol-% of [CuII(TPMA)X][X] (X=Br-, Cl-) complex, proceeded efficiently to yield highly functionalized (poly)halogenated esters and aryl compounds containing triazolyl group in almost quantitative yields (>90%). Additional reactions that were carried out utilizing tri-, di- and monohalogenated alkyl halides in the ATRA step provided reasonable yields of functionalized trriazoles. A slightly different approach involving a ligand-free catalytic system (CuSO4 and ascorbic acid) in the first step followed by addition of the TPMA ligand in the second step was applied in the synthesis of polyhalogened polytriazoles. Sequential reactions involving vinylbenzyl azide, tripropargylamine and polyhalogenated methane (CCl4 and CBr4) provided the desired products in quantitative yield in the presence of 10 mol% of the catalyst. Modest yields of functionalized polytriazoles were obtained from the addition of less active tri- and dihalogenated alkyl halides utilizing the same catalyst loading. <br>The last part focuses on copper(I) complexes, which were used catalysts in cyclopropanation reaction. One class represented cationic copper(I)/2,2-bipyridine complexes with p-coordinated styrene [CuI(bpy)(p-CH2CHC6H5)][A] (A = CF3SO3- (1) and PF6- (2) and ClO4- (3). Structural data suggested that the axial coordination of the counterion in these complexes observed in the solid state weak to non-coordinating (2.4297(11) �� 1, 2.9846(12) �� 2, and 2.591(4) �� 3). When utilized in cyclopropanation, complexes 1-3 provided similar product distribution suggesting that counterions have negligible effect on catalytic activity. Furthermore, the rate of decomposition of EDA in the presence of styrene catalyzed by 3 (kobs=(7.7��0.32)��10-3 min-1) was slower than the rate observed for 1 (kobs=(1.4��0.041)��10-2 min-1) or 2 (kobs=(1.0��0.025)��10-2 min-1). On the other hand, tetrahedral copper(I) complexes with bipyridine and phenanthroline based ligands have been reported to have strongly coordinated tetraphenylborate anions. CuI(bpy)(BPh4), CuI(phen)(BPh4) and CuI(3,4,7,8-Me4phen)(BPh4) complexes are the first examples in which BPh4- counterion chelates a transition metal center in bidentate fashion through h2 p-interactions with two of its phenyl rings. The product distribution revealed that the mole percent of trans and cis cyclopropanes were very similar. The observed rate constants (kobs) shown in for decomposition of EDA in the presence of externally added styrene were determined to be kobs=(1.5��0.12)��10-3 min-1, (6.8��0.30)��10-3 min-1 and (5.1��0.19)��10-3 min-1. / Bayer School of Natural and Environmental Sciences / Chemistry and Biochemistry / PhD / Dissertation