Optical frequency standards offer the possibility of a step improvement of up to two orders of magnitude in the accuracy with which the SI second can be realised. ¹⁷¹Yb⁺ possesses two dipole-forbidden optical transitions that are promising candidates for a redefinition of the second. In this thesis, absolute frequency measurements of these two transitions are presented. A number of experimental upgrades have been implemented, which have resulted in a large reduction in both the statistical and systematic uncertainties associated with the measurements and have improved both the reliability and simplicity of the experimental setup. In particular, the replacement of two frequency-doubled Ar⁺-pumped Ti:sapphire lasers with extended cavity diode lasers has eliminated the downtime associated with their maintenance. Additionally, the introduction of polarisation modulation on the cooling light has allowed the residual bias magnetic field required for laser cooling to be reduced by a factor of thirty. The first measurement at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) of the frequency of the ²S_1/2 (F = 0) → ²D_3/2 (F′ = 2) electric quadrupole (E2) transition at 436 nm is presented. The transition frequency was measured against a hydrogen maser using a femtosecond optical frequency comb, and was determined with a relative standard uncertainty of 1.3 × 10⁻¹⁴. A commercial diode-based laser system was then implemented in order to drive the ²S_1/2 (F = 0) → ²F_7/2 (F′ = 3) electric octupole (E3) transition at 467 nm. The laser frequency was actively stabilised to the ultra-narrow atomic absorption with a resolved linewidth of 11 Hz, allowing the acquisition of ninety hours of frequency data measured relative to the NPL’s primary frequency standard CsF2. Combined with a thorough evaluation of the systematic perturbations, the total fractional uncertainty in the absolute frequency of the transition has been reduced by a factor of twenty to 1 × 10⁻¹⁵. Recent complementary results from Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) show that the E3 transition in ¹⁷¹Yb⁺ has the potential to be a highly accurate and reproducible optical frequency standard, and to date these measurements demonstrate the best international agreement between trapped ion optical frequency standards.

Este trabalho relata a construção de um padrão primário baseado em uma nuvem de átomos frios de 133Cs em expansão, além de alguns resultados preliminares. A amostra de átomos de referência é preparada através de uma armadilha magneto-óptica. Durante uma fase de expansão livre os átomos são submetidos a uma seqüência de pulsos de microondas de 9,192631770 GHz, que excitam a transição do estado fundamental que define o segundo como unidade básica do SI, caracterizando o conhecido método de interrogação de campos separados de Ramsey. Ao final do ciclo de funcionamento um laser de prova é usado para detectar, por fluorescência, a quantidade de átomos que sofreram a transição para diferentes valores de freqüência de microondas. A coleta de dados, bem como o controle da seqüência temporal de funcionamento, é feita através de um microcomputador e placas de aquisição de dados. Juntamente com a caracterização inicial desse padrão primário foi realizada a otimização do experimento com respeito à duração dos pulsos de microondas e intervalos de expansão livre. Foram obtidos dados de estabilidade em freqüência, cujos valores apontam para direções bastante promissoras na utilização desse tipo de padrão primário. / This dissertation describes the construction of an atomic frequency standard based on the expansion of a 133Cs atomic cloud and preliminary results. The atomic sample is prepared in a magneto-optical trap. During the expansion process the atoms are submitted to a sequence of two microwave pulses at 9,192,631,770 Hz to probe the 133Cs ground state transition, which is the primary definition of the second. This method characterizes the well-known two separated oscillatory fields method. Finally, a flash of trapping light detects the atoms that suffered the second transition. The data acquisition, as well as the control of the time sequence, was taken by a microcomputer. With the initial characterization of the primary standard, the optimization of the experiment with respect to the duration of the microwave pulses as well as the intervals between them was done empirically. We have also obtained data of stability in frequency, with results that show a promising use of this type of primary standard.

A vida cotidiana é dividida por intervalos de tempo, assim como, a medida do tempo faz-se necessária para ciência e tecnologia com níveis diferentes de exatidão, pois cada aplicação possui uma exigência da incerteza associada à medida. Atualmente não há outra grandeza física medida com tamanha exatidão quanto à referência de frequência baseadas em transições de níveis de energia atômica, logo, baseando a medida de tempo. Este trabalho visa o estudo e desenvolvimento do sistema de controle e monitoramento de padrões de frequência experimentais. Para isso devemos projetar, construir e caracterizar todo o sistema de controle e aquisição de dados, geração de sinais de controle e processamento do sinal de resposta. O sistema interage com sinais provenientes de uma grande variedade de sensores do padrão de frequência, de modo a detectar possíveis problemas ou efeitos que possam afetar a medida de frequência obtida. Há também a necessidade de armazenagem e tratamento dos dados obtidos para diagnósticos e ações corretivas, para esta tarefa, dispositivos de instrumentação são analisados e desenvolvidos com diferentes abordagens para cada tipo de padrão de frequência, tanto para o chafariz de átomos quanto o padrão portátil. Dessa forma, o sistema de controle e monitoramento do padrão de frequência proporciona a integração entre todos os subsistemas envolvidos na construção de um padrão atômico de frequência. / Everyday life is divided by time intervals, as well as the measurement of time is needed for science and technology with different levels of accuracy, because each application has a requirement of the uncertainty associated with the measure. Currently there is no other physical quantity measured with such accuracy as to the frequency reference transitions based on atomic energy levels, which in turn are based on measurements of time. This work aims to study and develop the system of monitoring and control of experimental frequency standards. For this we must design, build and characterize the whole system control and data acquisition, signal generation control signal processing of response signal. The system interacts with signals from a variety of sensors presents of frequency standard in order to detect possible problems or effects that may affect the frequency measurement obtained. There is also the need for storage and processing of data for diagnostics and corrective actions for this task, instrumentation devices are analyzed and developed with different approaches for each type of pattern frequency to both the fountain and the compact mobile standards. Thus, the control system and monitoring of frequency standard provides integration between all subsystems involved in building an atomic frequency standard.

Thesis on the subject of lasercooling and trapping of neutral mercury for the purpose of making a lattice clock.

Este trabalho relata a construção de um padrão primário baseado em uma nuvem de átomos frios de 133Cs em expansão, além de alguns resultados preliminares. A amostra de átomos de referência é preparada através de uma armadilha magneto-óptica. Durante uma fase de expansão livre os átomos são submetidos a uma seqüência de pulsos de microondas de 9,192631770 GHz, que excitam a transição do estado fundamental que define o segundo como unidade básica do SI, caracterizando o conhecido método de interrogação de campos separados de Ramsey. Ao final do ciclo de funcionamento um laser de prova é usado para detectar, por fluorescência, a quantidade de átomos que sofreram a transição para diferentes valores de freqüência de microondas. A coleta de dados, bem como o controle da seqüência temporal de funcionamento, é feita através de um microcomputador e placas de aquisição de dados. Juntamente com a caracterização inicial desse padrão primário foi realizada a otimização do experimento com respeito à duração dos pulsos de microondas e intervalos de expansão livre. Foram obtidos dados de estabilidade em freqüência, cujos valores apontam para direções bastante promissoras na utilização desse tipo de padrão primário. / This dissertation describes the construction of an atomic frequency standard based on the expansion of a 133Cs atomic cloud and preliminary results. The atomic sample is prepared in a magneto-optical trap. During the expansion process the atoms are submitted to a sequence of two microwave pulses at 9,192,631,770 Hz to probe the 133Cs ground state transition, which is the primary definition of the second. This method characterizes the well-known two separated oscillatory fields method. Finally, a flash of trapping light detects the atoms that suffered the second transition. The data acquisition, as well as the control of the time sequence, was taken by a microcomputer. With the initial characterization of the primary standard, the optimization of the experiment with respect to the duration of the microwave pulses as well as the intervals between them was done empirically. We have also obtained data of stability in frequency, with results that show a promising use of this type of primary standard.

A vida cotidiana é dividida por intervalos de tempo, assim como, a medida do tempo faz-se necessária para ciência e tecnologia com níveis diferentes de exatidão, pois cada aplicação possui uma exigência da incerteza associada à medida. Atualmente não há outra grandeza física medida com tamanha exatidão quanto à referência de frequência baseadas em transições de níveis de energia atômica, logo, baseando a medida de tempo. Este trabalho visa o estudo e desenvolvimento do sistema de controle e monitoramento de padrões de frequência experimentais. Para isso devemos projetar, construir e caracterizar todo o sistema de controle e aquisição de dados, geração de sinais de controle e processamento do sinal de resposta. O sistema interage com sinais provenientes de uma grande variedade de sensores do padrão de frequência, de modo a detectar possíveis problemas ou efeitos que possam afetar a medida de frequência obtida. Há também a necessidade de armazenagem e tratamento dos dados obtidos para diagnósticos e ações corretivas, para esta tarefa, dispositivos de instrumentação são analisados e desenvolvidos com diferentes abordagens para cada tipo de padrão de frequência, tanto para o chafariz de átomos quanto o padrão portátil. Dessa forma, o sistema de controle e monitoramento do padrão de frequência proporciona a integração entre todos os subsistemas envolvidos na construção de um padrão atômico de frequência. / Everyday life is divided by time intervals, as well as the measurement of time is needed for science and technology with different levels of accuracy, because each application has a requirement of the uncertainty associated with the measure. Currently there is no other physical quantity measured with such accuracy as to the frequency reference transitions based on atomic energy levels, which in turn are based on measurements of time. This work aims to study and develop the system of monitoring and control of experimental frequency standards. For this we must design, build and characterize the whole system control and data acquisition, signal generation control signal processing of response signal. The system interacts with signals from a variety of sensors presents of frequency standard in order to detect possible problems or effects that may affect the frequency measurement obtained. There is also the need for storage and processing of data for diagnostics and corrective actions for this task, instrumentation devices are analyzed and developed with different approaches for each type of pattern frequency to both the fountain and the compact mobile standards. Thus, the control system and monitoring of frequency standard provides integration between all subsystems involved in building an atomic frequency standard.

Cette thèse décrit le travail expérimental sur différentes techniques visant l'obtention du contrôle de l'état quantique d'atomes et de molécules, pour application dans l'informatique quantique, la métrologie et l'astrophysique. Le contrôle cohérent exige des conditions précises de fonctionnement d'un système où la décohérence est minimisée. La construction d'une machine à jet atomique de calcium est présentée comme l'élément de base d'expériences où des schémas d'excitation laser choisis permettront de préparer de façon robuste un état quantique au moyen d'impulsions composites. La deuxième section décrit ma contribution pour améliorer la stabilité de fréquence relative de l'horloge à fontaine de cesium CSF2, à l'institut allemand de métrologie. Un piège magnéto-optique modifié produit un faisceau d'atomes de césium lents. Ils sont préparés dans un état noir spécifique puis sont efficacement transférés à la mélasse optique de la fontaine. L'augmentation du nombre d'atomes participant ainsi au cycle d'horloge améliore sa stabilité d'un facteur 6. La troisième section concerne les spectres de molécules NiH et FeH. Plusieurs sources pour leur production en laboratoire ont été développées et testées. Une expérience d'absorption laser différentielle et une technique de spectroscopie intra-cavité sont appliquées aux molécules faiblement absorbantes NiH, afin d'obtenir leurs coefficients d'absorption dans le rouge. La réponse Zeeman de la molécule FeH (une sonde du champ magnétique des étoiles froides) dans le proche infrarouge est étudiée par spectroscopie laser de précision afin d'établir des facteurs Landé pour 33 niveaux rovibrationnelles de l'état électronique F 4? / This thesis describes experimental work on different techniques aiming to achieve control of the quantum state of atoms and molecules, envisaging applications in quantum computing, metrology and astrophysics.Successful coherent control requires careful design of operating conditions for a system where decoherence is minimized. The construction of a calcium atomic beam is presented as a necessary element in experiments with laser excitation schemes chosen to provide high-fidelity preparation of a quantum satate by means of composite pulses. The second section describes my contribution to the improvement of the relative frequency stability of the Cs fountain clock CSF2 at the German institute of metrology. A modified magneto-optical trap is employed to form a beam of slow cesium atoms. They are prepared in a specific dark state and subsequently are efficiently transferred to the optical molasses of the fountain. Increasing number of atoms participating in the clock cycle in this way improves the stability of the clock by a factor of 6.The third section is concerned with spectra of metal hydride molecules NiH and FeH. Several sources for production of these molecules in laboratories were developed and tested. A differential laser absorption experiment and a cavity-enhanced spectroscopy technique are applied on the w??kly absorbing NiH molecules, to obtain absorption coefficients for the red bands of NiH. The Zeeman response of the FeH molecule (a probe for magnetic fields in cool stars) in the near-IR is investigated by precision laser spectroscopy establishing Landé factors for 33 rovibrational levels of the F 4? electronic state

Les deux premiers chapitres de la thèse présentent le principe d’un étalon de fréquence optique et les applications qui en découlent. Les principaux avantages métrologiques de l’horloge à réseau optique de mercure sont mis en avant, et quelques rappels théoriques d’interraction matière-rayonnement appliquée à la métrologie des fréquences sont effectués. Le montage expérimental est décrit de manière générale dans le chapitre 3, en insistant particulièrement sur les différentes sources laser utilisées. Les améliorations apportées au montage durant la thèse, font l’objet du chapitre 4. La première amélioration concerne le laser de refroidissement à 254nm. Mes travaux nous ont permis d’augmenter le temps d’interrogation des atomes, étape nécessaire pour une nouvelle mesure de stabilité de l’horloge et la caractérisation des effets systématiques. Afin d’augmenter ultérieurement la stabilité, une refonte de la cavité optique qui piège les atomes dans le réseau s’est révèlée indispensable. La nouvelle cavité permet de capturer 10 fois plus d’atomes grâce à une profondeur de piégage acrue d’un facteur 3, influant directement sur le rapport signal sur bruit. Enfin, les résultats expérimentaux obtenus sont décrits dans le 5ème et dernier chapitre. La spectroscopie sur fond noir d’un échantillon de mercure polarisé en spin avec une largeur de raie record de 3.3Hz nous a permis de mesurer une stabilité de 1.2x10 -15 à une seconde, soit presque un facteur 5 mieux par rapport à notre précédente mesure. Une caractérisation de plusieurs effets systématiques sur la transitions d’horloge (shift colisionnel, effet zeeman ou encore effet de la lumière de piégage) a été menée au niveau de 10-16. / The first two chapters of thesis describe the basics of optical standards and its applications. Highlight advantages of mercury as a frequency reference in optical lattice clock and give theoretical background about atom-light interaction, origins of systematic shifts and their influence on stability of a clock. The third chapter describes the experimental setup. It includes the schemes and operation of the main laser systems and their characteristics, the vacuum chamber and magneto-optical trapping of atoms. The fourth chapter is about the setup improvements that I made during the thesis. It describes the new doubling stage at 254 nm for the cooling laser system that was designed and implemented during the thesis. The new doubling stage allowed us to perform spectroscopies with long integration times necessary for the measurement of stability of our clock and systematic shifts. The second major and important improvement was the change of the lattice trap cavity. The new lattice cavity allowed us to increase trap depth by a factor of 3, number of trapped atoms by 10, improved the signal to noise ratio and increased stability of the clock. The fifth chapter tells about the obtained results. Thanks to all the technical improvements spectroscopy of the clock transition with the record linewidth of 3.3 Hz was demonstrated. State selection and spectroscopy on dark background were implemented. Stability of the clock was improved by a factor of 5 and measured to be 1.2*10-15 at 1 s. No observable collision shift and second order Zeeman shift were measured at the uncertainty level of ~1*10-16. The shift of the clock frequency due to lattice light was measured to be below 6*10-17.

Due to the recent success, in terms of accuracy and precision, of a number of strontium optical lattice optical frequency standards, and the classification of the 5s² ¹S₀ to 5s5p ³P₀ transition in neutral strontium as a secondary definition of the SI unit of the second, many new strontium lattice clocks are under development. The strontium optical lattice clock (Sr OLC) at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) is one such project. This thesis describes the design and build of the NPL Sr OLC, discussing the considerations behind the design. Details of the first cooling stage are given, which includes the characterisation of a novel permanent-magnet Zeeman slower by measurements of the longitudinal velocity distributions and loading of the MOT at 461 nm. Development of a narrow linewidth laser system at 689 nm is described, which is used for initial spectroscopy of the second-stage cooling transition. In particular, this work describes progress towards two independent ultra-narrow linewidth clock lasers. The new generation of strontium lattice clock experiments have focused on characterising the systematic frequency shifts and reducing their associated fractional frequency uncertainties, as well as reducing the fractional frequency instability of the measurement. One focus of the Sr OLC at NPL is to help characterise the frequency shift of the clock transition due to black-body radiation (BBR), which is currently the largest contributor to the uncertainty budget of the measured clock frequency. Our approach, discussed here, is to make a direct, differential measurement of the shift with the atoms housed alternately in environments of differing temperatures. Better characterisation and control of the BBR frequency shift of the strontium clock transition is crucial for the future of the Sr OLC as a leading frequency standard.

Apresentamos os aspectos mais relevantes para se realizar um chafariz a átomos frios de 133Cs, para operá-lo como um padrão primário de tempo e freqüência para realizar a definição do segundo. O objetivo principal desse trabalho foi a otimização do sistema experimental do chafariz de átomos em duas partes críticas: a região de interação e o sistema de detecção. Além disso, otimizamos as diversas fases da manipulação óptica que fazem parte do ciclo de operação de um chafariz com o intuito de aumentar a relação sinal ruído na região de detecção. Quando os átomos são lançados com uma velocidade de 3,39ms-1, atingem o ápice a 60cm acima da região de captura e passam 360ms na região de vôo livre. A temperatura dos átomos na região de detecção não ultrapassa 15,5K e a diferença de população observada através das Franjas de Ramsey, que são a assinatura característica de um padrão de freqüência atômico, tem a largura a meia altura de 1,4Hz. A largura de linha e a relação sinal ruído da franja implicam em uma estabilidade a curto prazo de 5,18×1012. Alguns causadores de deslocamentos de freqüência como a radiação de corpo negro, o efeito Doppler de segunda ordem, o efeito gravitacional e o efeito Zeeman de segunda ordem foram avaliados. / We present some relevant aspects for the realization of a 133Cs fountain, intended to operate as a primary frequency standard to realize the definition of the second. The main goal of this work is the optimization of the experimental setup of the atomic fountain in its most critical parts: the interaction region and the detection system. Furthermore, the several phases of the optical manipulation which concern the operation cycle of an atomic fountain were also optimized. These procedures allowed us to increase the signal to noise ratio in the detection signal. When the launching velocity is about 3.39 m/s, the atoms reach the apogee about 60 cm above the capture region and spend 360 ms in the free flight zone. The atomic ensemble temperature in the detection region is about 15.5K and the population difference between the two fundamental level is measured through the Ramsey fringe with a linewidth of 1.4 Hz. This linewidth, allied to the obtained S/N resulted in the measured short-term stability of 5.18×1012. Some frequency shift as the black body radiation shift, gravitational shift, second order Doppler shift and second order Zeeman shift were measured.