This thesis is presented as a collection of four studies in which the associations between athlete attachment styles, perceptions of basic psychological needs, and experiences of well/ill-being are examined. The first study of this thesis examined the mediating role of basic psychological need satisfaction, within the coach and parent relational contexts, in the associations between athletes (N = 430) global attachment styles and their experiences of well-being. Results demonstrated that satisfaction of the athletes basic psychological needs did mediate the associations between attachment styles and well-being. Study 2 examined whether mean differences and changes in athletes (N = 110) attachment style predicted psychological need satisfaction, within two relational contexts (coach and parent), and well-being, and whether mean differences and changes in need satisfaction within the relational contexts predicted well-being. Findings from the study provide further support for the role of attachment in need satisfaction and well-being within sport psychology, as well as highlighting important within- and between-person effects. Study 3 aimed to examine the possible social mechanisms that affect insecure athletes (N = 215) perceptions of basic need satisfaction. The social factors investigated as possible mediators were social support, interpersonal conflict, autonomy supportive behaviours, and controlling behaviours, each examined within both the coach and parent relational contexts. The findings of Study 3 highlighted that social factors have an important role in explaining the associations between athletes insecure attachment styles and their perceptions of basic psychological need satisfaction within two important relationships. The final study presented in this thesis aimed to focus on how thwarting of athletes basic psychological needs impacted upon athletes experiences of both well- and ill-being. Study 4 also measured athletes (N = 241) attachment styles to the coach specifically. Findings revealed that when athletes perceptions of their basic psychological needs were actively thwarted, within both aforementioned contexts, athletes insecure attachment to the coach impacted upon experiences of well- and ill-being. Overall, the findings of the current research have supplied new knowledge and understanding concerning athletes psychological functioning through the employment of established theoretical frameworks.

The poor outcomes of young people leaving foster care are well documented and demand a focus on placement permanency and interventions that encourage stability (Rubin et al, 2007). The need for better support for foster carers is widely acknowledged (Warman, Pallet & Scott, 2006; Morgan & Baron, 2011). To provide effective support an understanding of foster carers support needs is required. A qualitative approach explored the support needs of foster carers who look after young people perceived to have emotional and behavioural difficulties. Semi- structured interviews were undertaken with 17 foster carers employed by a local authority or an Independent Fostering Agency. A grounded theory methodology within a social constructionist framework was used to develop a new theoretical understanding from the data. A central storyline of ‘keeping your head above water’ emerged and appeared to encapsulate daily struggles and ways of managing. Categories which contributed to this were ‘becoming isolated’ from other professionals, ‘role ambiguity’ regarding the multiple meanings attached to being a foster carer, ‘making sense of emotional and behavioural difficulties’ highlighting a need to understand the children cared for, ‘a focus on behaviours’ illuminating approaches to parenting and ‘unmet emotional needs’ which is a possible consequence of focussing on children’s behaviours. The emergent theory may hold potential for developing psychological formulations, interventions and training programmes for foster carers. Suggestions for future support are put forward based on the new theoretical framework. Applications of the findings to Counselling Psychology are discussed in detail.

This dissertation examined the relationship between attachment insecurity and complicated grief by testing a path model of variables that were hypothesized to mediate this relationship. Three meaning-making variables were tested as potential mediators: benefit-finding, sense-making, and positive reappraisal. First, a series of principal components analyses were performed to determine the factor structure of these meaning-making variables. After these constructs were identified, a series of hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to determine the unique contribution of each of the primary variables in predicting either complicated grief or one of the meaning-making variables. As hypothesized, some of the attachment and meaning-making variables were highly associated with complicated grief. Attachment insecurity variables were also associated with some of the meaning-making variables suggesting that attachment may have some influence on how individuals use meaning-making strategies in the midst of a loss. These variables were then entered into a path analysis that accounted for other relevant risk factors. It was found that, contrary to the main hypothesis, the meaning-making variables did not appear to mediate the relationship between attachment insecurity and complicated grief. Multiple regression was used to determine the relative impact of meaning-making and attachment variables on complicated grief because these variables have not been previously included in one statistical model. The results suggested that both meaning-making and attachment insecurity variables can play an important role as risk factors for complicated grief and that these relationships are still present after accounting for the closeness that an individual reported towards the deceased. It was concluded that both sets of variables, attachment and meaning-making, should be included in models of the development of complicated grief and that both may have clinical implications in terms of how to approach counseling for individuals struggling with complicated grief. More research on this topic is needed to look at similar research questions within specific populations. It was also suggested that in the future, researchers need to find better ways to measure meaning-making constructs because the current findings suggest that meaning-making may be even more multifaceted than has been suggested in previous literature. / text

This study used a mixed qualitative-quantitative design to describe attachment in a sample of one-hundred fifty-four healthy community-living older adults. Life-span development and attachment theory combined to define the philosophical and theoretical orientation that guided the investigation. The idea of an "attachment structure" was conceptualized by the investigator to frame attachment--an approach that allowed attachment to involve multiple attachment objects from any or all of six different attachment object types (things, ideas, people, groups of people, animals, or places). The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the attachment structure as it presented in, and developed in later life. In phase one of the study, 154 older adults were administered a questionnaire designed to elicit descriptive information about the newly conceptualized "attachment structure". This information was used to guide theoretical sampling in the qualitative, second phase. In phase two, a grounded theory methodology was used to explore the developmental changes that occurred in attachment structures in later life. Sixteen subjects from phase one were selected, based on their responses to the quantitative phase, as those subjects most likely to advance the theory developing focus of this study. Analysis supported the attachment structure as a meaningful representation of socio-emotional development in later life. The existence of multiple attachment objects of multiple object types was supported by both quantitative and qualitative data. Significantly, in addition to close family and friends, subjects reported attachments to ideas like independence and freedom. A grounded process called "reconfiguring" was identified from qualitative analysis that described how older people make changes in their attachment structures to maintain a sense of security in the face of diminishing contact with attachment objects. Two pathways, the structural stimulation pathway and the reconfiguring pathway, describe the dynamics of the attachment structure. The reconfiguring pathway was identified as a developmental resource of aging--a process available to older people to address developmental challenges in aging that affect one's quality and quantity of interaction with attachment objects.

Eshkol-Wachmann Movement Notation was applied to describe and quantify nonverbal behavioral synchrony between romantic partners. The interaction of 30 couples was observed across three study conditions, Pre-Stressor, and two Post-Stressor conditions when the female partner had been targeted with a stress manipulation. Participant-level behavior, and forms of dyadic synchrony were predicted with the male and females' self-reported attachment style. Results support theories from the attachment literature.

The important implications of the attachment relationship have led researchers to consider what the precursors to a secure attachment relationship are. Ainsworth, Bell, and Stayton (1971) proposed that maternal sensitivity was the fundamental trait in developing a secure attachment relationship. However, recent research has identified that mind-mindedness; the tendency of a parent to treat their infant as an individual with a mind (Meins, Fernyhough, Fradley & Tuckey, 2001), is a better predictor of parent infant attachment than maternal sensitivity. This study explored the impact of a new antenatal intervention called Baby World on the subsequent mind-mindedness of participants as well as its impact on the parent infant relationship. Participants who had attended the Baby World class and standard NHS antenatal classes (intervention group, N=21) were compared to those who had only attended standard NHS antenatal classes (control group, N=19). The study also explored whether planned pregnancies led to more mind-mindedness than unplanned pregnancies; whether emotional and physical wellbeing in pregnancy predicted mindmindedness and if there was any concordance between couples mind-mindedness. Results showed that participants in the intervention group used significantly more appropriate mind-minded comments than those in the control group. The intervention group also scored significantly higher than the control group on the Absence of Hostility subscale of the Maternal Postnatal Attachment Scale (MPAS, Condon & Corkindale, 1998). There was a non-significant trend of the intervention group scoring higher than the control group on the overall MPAS score as well as the Pleasure in Interaction subscale of the MPAS. The results also illustrated that emotional and physical wellbeing in pregnancy did not predict mind-mindedness and no concordance between couples mind-mindedness was found. Theoretical explanations of these findings are presented and the clinical implications and future research are discussed.

Introduction: Key studies have found an association between attachment style and poor diabetes outcomes in the adult diabetic populations. Specifically insecure attachment has been found to predict elevated glycated haemoglobin levels (HbA1c). Further studies have indicated that substance use and mental health difficulties also influence HbA1c. These factors have been looked at individually making it difficult to directly assess the overall effect of attachment on HbA1c and the potential mediating effects of substance use and mental health. The adolescent population has not been considered in studies examining these relationships. This study compares attachment security, level of substance use, interpersonal problems, anxiety and depression in relation to their role in blood glucose control in an adolescent population with Type 1 diabetes. Method: A quantitative, cross sectional, questionnaire design was employed to examine the role of the aforementioned factors in relation to HbA1c level. The target population included all patients aged 14 years to 18 years, inclusive, who attended for review at Diabetes Clinics across Lothian. Participants had a diagnosis of Type 1 Diabetes for at least one year and no additional diagnoses of mental health disorder or other chronic condition. At the clinic patients were approached and asked to complete a set of self report questionnaires. Measures of attachment were adapted versions of the Relationship Questionnaire (RQ) and the Relationship Scales Questionnaire (RSQ). Interpersonal problems were assessed using the short version of the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP-32). The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) assessed levels of anxiety and depression. The Adolescent Substance Abuse Subtle Screening Inventory- A2 (SASSI-A2) was used to measure substance use. Blood glucose levels (HbA1c%) were obtained from clinic staff. A total of 88 participants returned completed questionnaires (response rate 79.3%). Results: When all correlations between predictors and HbA1c were examined, a negative correlation was found between attachment and HbA1c level. A positive correlation was found between anxiety and HbA1c level. Multiple regression analyses examined the relationship between attachment security and HbA1c before analysing additional predictors in the same model. No significant relationships emerged however the multiple regression model was not a significant fit for the data. Path Analysis considered all relationships between variables simultaneously while also providing information on how the model fits the data. Attachment security directly related to HbA1c levels when the contributions of gender, interpersonal problems and substance use were considered. Anxiety and depression did not predict HbA1c nor did they contribute to any other relationships with HbA1c. Interpersonal problems had a direct relationship with HbA1c when the contribution of substance use and attachment were considered. Conclusion: Attachment predicts HbA1c. The nature of this relationship is further understood when the contribution of additional psychological variables are considered. Methodological issues, clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

A range of electronic databases and two journals were subjected to a detailed literature search, focusing on studies evaluating psychological interventions with children aged 0-5 years of age. Outcome studies, utilising experimental design, were included for critical review. The search strategy revealed predominantly attachment-informed intervention studies, prompting a review of this aspect of the literature. A total of twelve studies were identified for closer scrutiny: five with a preventative focus; four describing interventions with clinical populations and three detailing large-scale intervention programmes. This review found evidence that early interventions are effective in altering maternal sensitivity and insecure patterns of attachment. Moreover, interventions were effective in reducing the effects of postnatal depression on attachment security, reducing the incidence of placement breakdown in fostered and adopted children and preventing behaviour difficulties in school-age children. These findings indicate a burgeoning evidence base for attachment-based intervention models for the prevention or treatment of infant or child psychopathology.

This research project aims to explore the role of the Key Person in Early Years preschool and nursery settings. The Key Person role is specified in the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) guidance, and aims to provide an adult figure with which the children can form a positive and productive learning relationship. The present study originated from previous research conducted in the same authority which looked at the experiences of children in day care settings (Day, 2010). Day (2010) identified children’s attachment needs in day care settings as being an avenue for further research, and it was from this that the present study developed. The current study seeks to understand the role of the Key Person in terms of how relationships are formed with children in Early Years settings, and what those relationships look like on a daily basis. This is an important line of enquiry, as an understanding of Early Years, adult-child relationships can help inform effective future practice for Early Years staff, as well as enable outside professionals (such as Educational Psychologists) to design more effective means of early intervention for the children who may need additional support. The theoretical foundations for this research lie in attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969), following the language used by the Government Guidance on the role of the Key Person. Attachment theory is used here as a basis for understanding early adult-child relationships, and the review of the literature looks at research that has explored the impact of children’s attendance in day care settings. The project is divided into two linked research papers. In the first paper, the role of the Key Person is explored through surveying and interviewing a sample of Early Years staff. In doing this, the following research objectives were addressed: • To examine the approaches that Key Persons use to form relationships with the children in their care. • To explore Key Persons’ perceptions of their role within the setting and the challenges they face. • To examine the awareness and impact of the current government guidance on Key Person practice. • To examine how settings organise and evaluate the Key Person role. In the second paper, the relationships between the Key Persons and the children they care for are explored through a series of case studies. This was in order to address the following research objectives: • To explore the relationships between particular children with adults in Early Years settings through intensive case studies. • To examine the Key Person-child relationship by comparing Key Person-child interactions with interactions with other adults in the setting. • To compare cases of Key Person-child relationships between children who have identified social or emotional needs and those who do not. The findings from paper one indicated that Key Persons do not generally seem to use the Government Guidance as a primary influence on the way they build positive relationships with their Key Children. Key Persons seemed to base their practice on experiential knowledge. Furthermore, the organisation of the role in most settings seemed to indicate a more administrative focus than a focus on building specific relationships. Paper two showed that Key Persons generally had more interactions with their Key Children than other adults had with the same children. Differences were found in the types of interactions children experienced with different adults. Relationships were reported to be close with both groups of children, with Key Persons reporting more conflict with the children identified with social or emotional needs. It is hoped that the findings of the two linked papers will inform EP practice in relation to Early Years settings, particularly in terms of developing early intervention. From professional experience, there seems to be a large amount of diversity in the way EP services work with preschool-aged children and the professionals who support them. Perhaps further uses for the findings in this research could be to inform future collaborative working, as well as areas to which EPs can contribute their body of research knowledge. The following document presents each study separately as individual papers, each with appendices which contain additional information on methods and data analysis. The papers are followed by the literature review, university Ethics form and the bibliography for the entire study.

This paper reports the two phases of an evaluative study looking at the impact of Thrive training. A small Local Authority (LA) in the South West of England commissioned this study. In phase-one, Thrive trainees completed Likert-type questionnaires about the three areas below: • Perceived relationships with children with BESD; • Self-efficacy in managing children’s BESD; and • Causes to which BESD can be attributed. Data were taken from Thrive trainees who attended either the one-day Thrive training or the nine-day Thrive training. Thrive trainees (n= 60) completed questionnaires before training began and after training had finished. The questionnaire comprised three established scales, investigating the three areas listed above. Data gathered was quantitative and analysis was designed to show differences between participants’ ratings before and after completing the Thrive training. For the nine-day training, results show an overall increase in trainees’ perceived relationship quality, and self-efficacy in managing children’s BESD. It was also seen that Thrive trainees attributed the existence of challenging behaviour to causes thought to be beyond the child’s control yet within the provision control. Findings were less evident for the one-day training. These results are related to past research and conclusions are drawn about the efficacy of the Thrive training. In phase-two, eight participants were randomly selected from the sample used in phase-one. Participants were interviewed through the process of hierarchical questioning and contextual focusing and qualitative data was gained. The focus of phase-two was to investigate what changes (if any) Thrive trainees identified as occurring due to their attendance on the Thrive training as well as which factors (if any) within the Thrive training particularly facilitated change in each of the areas measured in phase-one (perceived relationship building, self-efficacy and causal-attributions). Thematic analysis was used to draw themes from participants’ responses. Results show that Thrive trainees discussed changes in their behaviour; thoughts; feelings; and personal attributes. Results also found that Thrive trainees attributed these changes, as well as changes relating to the three areas measured quantitatively in phase-one, to specific factors within the Thrive training. These include: • The delivery style; • The Thrive model and specific training content; and • Other mediating factors. Results are discussed with reference to past research; conclusions are drawn about the efficacy of the Thrive training and some general implications for the LA for whom the current research was conducted, as well as for educational psychology practice, are reported.