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The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between the individual’s relationship with God, body image, eating attitudes and eating behaviors amongst religious individuals in Sweden. This study is designed as a qualitative research study. The empirical data is collected via eight semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions in order to understand the individual’s lived experiences as a believer, through the body, and of eating. The sample consisted of both religiously and ethnically heterogeneous individuals living in Sweden (Male=3, Female=5, Age 22-40). The theory used for the data analysis is mainly attachment theory, which has the evolutionary origins of the attachment system and its manifestation in child – caregiver relationship. This theory is applied to religiosity by assuming that the individual’s close relationship with a personal God is an attachment relationship. Complementarily, a set of theoretical perspectives on the body - Grosz’s (1994) application of Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenological approach to the body and Bell’s (1992) ritualization theory – are also used for the analysis. Further, an acculturation perspective is used in order to explore cultural contexts, in which the respondents are situated. The results show that multiple factors have influences on the respondents’ past and current body images, attitudes towards the body, eating attitudes and behaviors. However, faith in, and relationships with God are identified as one of the most important and influential factors for their body images, attitudes towards the body, eating attitudes and behaviors except one respondent, whose case is not fit in the result. The results indicate that positive attachment relationships with God/other super natural figures can play a role in the establishment and maintenance of positive body image as well as problem free eating behaviors.

The purpose of this study is to conduct a psychometric investigation of the Attachment to God Inventory (AGI; Beck & McDonald, 2004) using a national sample of socioeconomically and religiously diverse young adults commonly referred to as millennials (i.e., persons born between 1980 and 1996; Pew Research Center, 2018). Confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) results failed to yield satisfactory fit for the AGI model using the entire sample and a Christian-only subsample. Alternative model specifications that accounted for method factors, higher-order factors, and bi-factors also failed. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) suggested alternative factor solutions that were cross-validated using CFA. Support for an orthogonal, 2-factor, 8-item model possessed excellent model fit (χ²(20) = 172.186; RMSEA = .051 [.044–.058]; CFI/TLI = .955/.993). Configural, metric, and scale measurement invariance were supported based on gender- and ethnic-identity considerations; however, invariance was not supported based upon religious affiliation. The resulting model consisted of two constructs that were labeled divine rejection (McDonald’s ω = .838 [95% CI: .827–.849]) and divine dependence (McDonald’s ω = .862 [95% CI: .852–.872]) and were found to be invariant only for individuals who identified as Christian. Latent profile analysis (LPA) of the standardized scores of the two factors yielded a five-class solution whose classes were labeled intrinsic, independent, everyday, strained, and detached believers. Class membership was found to be most associated with divine rejection. Rather than considering the resulting model to be an improved model based on attachment to God theory, this study concludes that the resulting model is most consistent with social comparison theory. Several hypotheses and recommendations for future research are made.

Having a secure attachment to God may act as a buffer against stress. Secure attachment to God has been positively associated with adaptive outcomes following stress, such as higher levels of stress-related growth and fewer maladaptive symptoms including depression, prolonged grief, and traumatic distress. However, relatively few studies have empirically tested the relationship between attachment to God and resilience and posttraumatic growth. Thus, the current study explored the potential associations and pathways through which attachment to God is associated with resilience and posttraumatic growth in a sample of 303 suddenly and/or traumatically bereaved individuals. The current study found that (a) God attachment avoidance is a unique negative predictor of resilience and posttraumatic growth even when controlling for adult attachment, (b) self-compassion and meaning-making mediate the association between God attachment anxiety and resilience/posttraumatic growth, (c) secure attachment to God is associated with higher levels of resilience than insecure attachment styles, but not with posttraumatic growth, and (d) an increased number of secondary losses is associated with lower levels of resilience. I conclude by discussing my findings in light of the extant literature on attachment to God, resilience, and posttraumatic growth. By better understanding attachment to God and how it may relate to resilience and posttraumatic growth, clinicians will be better equipped to interact with clients of diverse religious/spiritual (R/S) identities, potentially utilizing R/S as a strength or addressing maladaptive aspects of R/S in the wake of life stressors.

Adolescents experience a key developmental process of identity formation and try to understand who they are and how they feel about themselves. While research has found religiosity to often predict increased body esteem for religious adults, little is known about the association between religiosity and body esteem for adolescents. Using an Identity Theory lens, the current cross-sectional study (n=1,693) examined the relationship between adolescent religious identity (religious salience and belief being a child of God) and body esteem, mediated by one's attachment to God. Three structural equation mediation models examined 1) overall relationships; 2) relationships by gender; and 3) relationships by religious affiliation. Results indicate that overall, attachment to God fully mediates the relationship between religious identity and body esteem. Gender differences and religious affiliation differences were generally not found. However, "Nones" differed from Latter-day Saints regarding the relationship between religious salience and body esteem with Latter-day Saints experiencing a stronger effect. Religious youth pastors, parents, and other adolescent mentors should be aware of the positive influence that religiosity can have on body esteem for youth who believe in God and help these youth get closer to God and strengthen their religious identities.

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Research has highlighted the significant implications of spirituality for mental health and therapy. However, a key facet of spirituality yet to receive adequate research attention is people’s experience of their relationship with God. One useful theoretical framework recently applied to this relationship is attachment theory. Research suggests that many people experience their relationship with God as an attachment bond, and that styles of attachment to God (ATG) may have implications for mental health similar to human attachment. However, few studies have directly investigated the relationship between ATG and mental health, and limitations of these studies make it difficult to draw conclusions. The present study provides a more rigorous exploration of this relationship through the use of a cross-lagged research design, advanced statistical modelling, and investigation of potential moderators (gender and negative events). A convenience sample of 531 Christian adults was surveyed at two time points approximately four months apart. ATG was measured on two dimensions: ATG-avoidance (avoidance of intimacy with/dependence on God) and ATG-anxiety (preoccupations and fears regarding God’s rejection). Higher levels of baseline ATG-anxiety predicted poorer emotional wellbeing at Time 2, after controlling for baseline emotional wellbeing. This effect was stronger amongst participants experiencing a high level of negative events. Findings also indicate a potential mechanism for this effect. Specifically, ATG-anxiety was associated with a tendency to appraise negative events as indicating God’s abandonment/punishment. These appraisals mediated the relationship between ATG-anxiety and emotional wellbeing. In contrast, low levels of ATG-anxiety buffered the effects of negative events. The effects of ATG-anxiety were significant only amongst males, contrary to hypotheses. ATG-avoidance did not show hypothesised effects on emotional wellbeing in either gender. Possible limitations of the ATG-avoidance measure were noted, and may have influenced findings. Suggestions were made as to how future studies might address this potential measurement issue and other limitations of the study. Findings indicate that ATG theory may have useful therapeutic applications, as proposed by previous researchers. Specifically, the ATG framework may be useful for conceptualising clients’ relationship with God and its effects on mental health, although establishing this will ultimately require testing in clinical samples.

Religious conversion has been described as a “spiritual transformation” where converts experience an “intimate ‘union’ . . . [with] divine presence” (Sandage & Shults, 2007). To better understand motivators of conversion, several studies have examined how attachment patterns affect the likelihood, and speed of religious conversion (e.g., Granqvist & Hagekull, 1999; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004; Kirkpatrck, 1998; Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1990; Schnitker, Porter, Emmons, & Barrett, 2012). Converts' changes in personality, self-definition, and meaningfulness following conversion have been noted (Halama and Lačná, 2011; Paloutzian, Richardson, & Rambo, 1999). However, little, if any research has been conducted examining changes in attachment patterns of converts that occur following conversion. The current study, a follow-up to Hansen, Page, Fischer, and Williams (2014), examined the post-conversion attachment changes for 39 committed converts to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (ranging in time since baptism from 2 months to 35 years). Interviews were conducted previously (see Hansen, et al., 2014) in a semi-structured format by two undergraduate researchers (ranging from 30-60 minutes in length) and then transcribed by a third undergraduate research assistant. Two additional research assistants listened to the recordings and edited the transcriptions (Hansen, et al., 2014). Beginning with a theory-driven conceptual framework in the analysis, a qualitative hermeneutic interpretive method (see Jackson & Patton,1992; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009) was used in the current study to explore the converts' transcripts. The converts were not asked specific questions regarding their relationships at the time of the interview. However, the converts spontaneously revealed various attachments patterns in the way that they spoke of themselves, their family, and their friends in their narratives. Three overarching themes were drawn from the analysis. The converts (a) demonstrated evidence of attachment patterns in their narratives; (b) experienced a spiritual conversion or an experience of having a new or closer relationship with God beyond a projection of their parental attachment style; and (c) experienced a spiritual restructuring of their attachment patterns. In other words, they described feeling that their closer relationship with God dramatically changed the way they viewed themselves and how they interacted in relationships with others. The findings of this study have implications for understanding the impact of spirituality on attachment patterns.

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