A hipóxia-isquemia (HI) encefálica neonatal pode gerar sequelas neurológicas permanentes nos indivíduos que sobrevivem a este evento precoce. Dentre estas sequelas, o diagnóstico de Transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH) já foi relacionado em pesquisa clínica. Sabendo que não há consenso de um modelo adequado para o estudo do TDAH em pesquisa experimental, novas abordagens que contribuam para o desenvolvimento desse modelo são necessárias. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar se a HI neonatal contribui para o desenvolvimento das características comportamentais relacionadas ao TDAH na fase adulta em ratos e correlacionar os resultados comportamentais com o volume da lesão encefálica. Para isso, ratos Wistar machos foram divididos em dois grupos: hipóxia-isquemia (HI, n=12) e controle (CT, n=10). O procedimento de HI consistiu na combinação da oclusão da artéria carótida comum direita no 7º dia pós-natal com exposição a uma atmosfera hipóxica (8% O2 e 92% N2, durante 90 minutos). Durante a fase adulta, ao atingir dois meses de idade, os animais foram testados no teste attentional set-shifting (ASS) para avaliar flexibilidade comportamental atencional e no teste de tolerância ao atraso da recompensa, para avaliação da escolha impulsiva. Os resultados mostraram que os animais submetidos à HI apresentaram prejuízo na função executiva, avaliado no ASS, evidenciado por uma inflexibilidade comportamental quando a regra para a execução da tarefa era mudada (p ≤ ,05 para o número de tentativas para passar dos estágios de Reversão 2 e Reversão 3, assim como o número de erros nesses estágios, além do estágio de mudança extradimensional – Teste t não-pareado). No teste de tolerância ao atraso da recompensa, não foi observada uma maior impulsividade dos animais HI, tendo os dois grupos um comportamento similar neste teste. Além disso, as avaliações do volume encefálico pelo Método de Cavalieri demonstraram uma atrofia no grupo HI no hemisfério total, córtex cerebral, substância branca, hipocampo e estriado, principalmente no lado ipsilateral à lesão (p ≤ ,05, Teste t não-pareado). Considerando esses resultados, podemos inferir que a HI neonatal é um fator ambiental que pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento das características comportamentais observadas no TDAH, e que estas são associadas a uma atrofia encefálica geral. / Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HI) can cause permanent neurological sequelae in survivors of this early event. Among these sequelae, the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has already been linked in clinical research. There is no consensus about an ideal ADHD model in experimental research, being necessary new approaches that contribute to the development of this model. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether HI contributes to the development of characteristics related to ADHD in adult rats and correlate the behavioral results with brain damage volume. Male Wistar rats were divided into two groups: hypoxia-ischemia (HI, n=12) and control (CT, n=10). The HI procedure consist of a permanent occlusion of the right common carotid artery followed by a period of hypoxia (90 min; 8% O2 and 92% N2), at seventh postnatal day (PND). Two months later, animals were evaluated in attentional set-shifting test (ASS) for assessment of attentional flexibility and in the tolerance to delay of reward, for evaluation of impulsivity choice. Our results demonstrated that animals submitted to HI manifest impairments in executive function, evidenced by a behavioral inflexibility when the rule for the execution of the ASS task was changed (p ≤ ,05 for number of trials to reach the criterion in Reversion 2 and 3 stages, as well as in number of erros in these stages, in addition to the Extradimensional shift stage – Unpaired t test). In the tolerance to delay of reward, no greater impulsivity of HI animals was observed, with both groups demonstrating similar behavior in this task. Moreover, the assessments of brain volume by Cavalieri method demonstrated atrophy in HI group in total hemisphere, cerebral cortex, white matter, hippocampus and striatum, especially on the side ipsilateral to the lesion (p ≤ ,05 – Unpaired t test). Considering these results, we can infer that neonatal HI is an environmental factor that could contribute to the development of behavioral characteristics observed in ADHD which are associated to general brain atrophy.

A hipóxia-isquemia (HI) encefálica neonatal pode gerar sequelas neurológicas permanentes nos indivíduos que sobrevivem a este evento precoce. Dentre estas sequelas, o diagnóstico de Transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH) já foi relacionado em pesquisa clínica. Sabendo que não há consenso de um modelo adequado para o estudo do TDAH em pesquisa experimental, novas abordagens que contribuam para o desenvolvimento desse modelo são necessárias. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar se a HI neonatal contribui para o desenvolvimento das características comportamentais relacionadas ao TDAH na fase adulta em ratos e correlacionar os resultados comportamentais com o volume da lesão encefálica. Para isso, ratos Wistar machos foram divididos em dois grupos: hipóxia-isquemia (HI, n=12) e controle (CT, n=10). O procedimento de HI consistiu na combinação da oclusão da artéria carótida comum direita no 7º dia pós-natal com exposição a uma atmosfera hipóxica (8% O2 e 92% N2, durante 90 minutos). Durante a fase adulta, ao atingir dois meses de idade, os animais foram testados no teste attentional set-shifting (ASS) para avaliar flexibilidade comportamental atencional e no teste de tolerância ao atraso da recompensa, para avaliação da escolha impulsiva. Os resultados mostraram que os animais submetidos à HI apresentaram prejuízo na função executiva, avaliado no ASS, evidenciado por uma inflexibilidade comportamental quando a regra para a execução da tarefa era mudada (p ≤ ,05 para o número de tentativas para passar dos estágios de Reversão 2 e Reversão 3, assim como o número de erros nesses estágios, além do estágio de mudança extradimensional – Teste t não-pareado). No teste de tolerância ao atraso da recompensa, não foi observada uma maior impulsividade dos animais HI, tendo os dois grupos um comportamento similar neste teste. Além disso, as avaliações do volume encefálico pelo Método de Cavalieri demonstraram uma atrofia no grupo HI no hemisfério total, córtex cerebral, substância branca, hipocampo e estriado, principalmente no lado ipsilateral à lesão (p ≤ ,05, Teste t não-pareado). Considerando esses resultados, podemos inferir que a HI neonatal é um fator ambiental que pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento das características comportamentais observadas no TDAH, e que estas são associadas a uma atrofia encefálica geral. / Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HI) can cause permanent neurological sequelae in survivors of this early event. Among these sequelae, the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has already been linked in clinical research. There is no consensus about an ideal ADHD model in experimental research, being necessary new approaches that contribute to the development of this model. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether HI contributes to the development of characteristics related to ADHD in adult rats and correlate the behavioral results with brain damage volume. Male Wistar rats were divided into two groups: hypoxia-ischemia (HI, n=12) and control (CT, n=10). The HI procedure consist of a permanent occlusion of the right common carotid artery followed by a period of hypoxia (90 min; 8% O2 and 92% N2), at seventh postnatal day (PND). Two months later, animals were evaluated in attentional set-shifting test (ASS) for assessment of attentional flexibility and in the tolerance to delay of reward, for evaluation of impulsivity choice. Our results demonstrated that animals submitted to HI manifest impairments in executive function, evidenced by a behavioral inflexibility when the rule for the execution of the ASS task was changed (p ≤ ,05 for number of trials to reach the criterion in Reversion 2 and 3 stages, as well as in number of erros in these stages, in addition to the Extradimensional shift stage – Unpaired t test). In the tolerance to delay of reward, no greater impulsivity of HI animals was observed, with both groups demonstrating similar behavior in this task. Moreover, the assessments of brain volume by Cavalieri method demonstrated atrophy in HI group in total hemisphere, cerebral cortex, white matter, hippocampus and striatum, especially on the side ipsilateral to the lesion (p ≤ ,05 – Unpaired t test). Considering these results, we can infer that neonatal HI is an environmental factor that could contribute to the development of behavioral characteristics observed in ADHD which are associated to general brain atrophy.

The purpose of this thesis was to develop methodology by which treatments for the cognitive impairments in Huntington's disease (HD) could be tested. As such, the thesis focused mainly on evaluating rats with quinolinic acid (QA) lesions of the striatum, as this manipulation mimics some aspects of the neural damage in Huntington's disease, to try to identify cognitive deficits of HD resulting from cell loss in the striatum. In the first part (Chapters 3-5), the role of the striatum in implicit memory was investigated. Chapter 3 compared the performance of rats and humans on a reaction time task that evaluated implicit memory by presenting visual stimuli with differing probabilities which change over time. Although rats made higher percentage of incorrect responses and late errors, both groups showed a similar pattern of reaction times. Chapter 4 investigated whether implicit memory (the computation of probabilities to predict the location of a stimulus) was affected by selective blockade of dopaminergic transmission at the D1 or D2 receptors by SCH-23390 and raclopride, respectively. Reaction times were slower with SCH-23390 and raclopride, but only SCH-23390 reduced errors to the least probable target location. Chapter 5 used the same task to evaluate implicit memory in rats with QA lesions of the dorsomedial striatum (DMS). Implicit memory was not affected by lesions of the DMS, which suggested that once a task that requires implicit memory has been learned, the DMS was not involved in sustaining the performance of the task. The second part of this thesis (Chapter 6), explored the contribution of the DMS in habit formation. DMS lesioned rats did not show habitual responding, and were not impaired in learning a new goal-directed behaviour. The third part (Chapters 7 and 8), investigated the role of the dorsal striatum in reversal learning, attentional set-formation, and set-shifting. Dorsal striatum lesioned rats were not impaired in reversal learning, but had a diminished shift-cost, which suggested that dorsal striatum lesions disrupted the formation of attentional sets. These results showed that although QA lesions of the dorsal striatum mimic some aspects of the neural damage in HD, they did not result in the same cognitive deficits observed in patients with HD, at least using the tasks presented in this thesis. However, other animal models of HD could be evaluated using the different tasks presented in this thesis to continue the search of a reliable animal model of HD in which treatments for the disease could be evaluated.