In this thesis I present a systematic comparison of religious education in state schools in England and Norway. Comparative studies in related fields and pioneering works in comparative RE informed the formulation of a methodology, essentially a template for comparative religious education. This is a synthesis of two sets of ideas. The first is an idea of three dimensions in comparative education: supranational, national and subnational processes. In supranational processes I distinguish between formal and informal processes. Formal processes refer to formal international (educational) policymaking which takes place in international organizations. Informal processes include social and/ or political developments which take place both in and through the formal processes but also outside them and, partly independently of them - such as secularisation, pluralisation and globalisation. My perspective is that comparison in religious education is about the study of the impact of supranational processes on national processes. Subnational processes refer to variations between regions within a country. The second set of ideas is levels of curriculum: societal, institutional, instructional and experiential. The thesis chapters explore these levels examining how they are affected by supranational, national and subnational processes. In discussing the societal level, the focus is on academic debates. The institutional level is represented mainly by relevant legislation plus key policy documents, the Non-Statutory National Framework for RE (QCA 2004) and Local Agreed Syllabuses in England, and the Norwegian National Curriculum for RE (UD 2005).The instructional level includes how teachers plan and deliver the curriculum and the experiential level corresponds to how learners receive the curriculum. The societal and institutional levels are explored through theory and documentary studies, while empirical studies are part of the material for the chapters concerning practice. Civil enculturation, social imaginaries and national imaginaries are important analytical concepts. The suggested methodology and some central findings are discussed further in a concluding chapter.

This thesis examines the work of the National Society of the Church of England in Religious Education, with particular reference to the use of illustrated material in Religious Education textbooks and pupils’ books at the end of the nineteenth century. It begins with an outline of the National Society’s early development and the start of its publishing house, The Depository, in 1845. It then looks at some aspects of teacher training, curricula for Religious Education and the importance attached by the National Society to the moral and Christian training of teachers who later taught in Board Schools as well as Church of England schools. The thesis briefly discusses the reasons for the National Society’s publications in the light of contemporary Victorian ideas and then considers in details the following publications: The life of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, The Childhood of Christ, The Ministry of Christ, The Passion of Christ and The Resurrection of Christ, the first of these being written by F.T. Palgrave and the others by an unknown author ‘R.E.H’, all being illustrated with twenty-four chromolithographs of Italian Renaissance Christian paintings dating from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. Later materials, produced by the National Society and other publishers are then examined, in order to demonstrate the significance of The Life and The Stories. In revealing this part of educational history the thesis demonstrates that these publications were precursors for modern books, considered a success by contemporary teachers, in order to meet their own standards and the demands of the government regulations. The method used has been archival research into written sources and art historical research into the illustrations, with historical and theological method applied where appropriate.

This research explores the impact of the resurrection in St. John’s Gospel, through focusing on the theme of ‘hope’. Consideration is given as to how this might inspire a theological vision of ‘hope’ in an educational context, in particular that of Church of England primary schools. The method for this research involves Biblical analysis of the resurrection appearances as recorded in the Gospel of St. John. The methodology uses Bevans’ (2012) praxis model of contextual theology combined with Kennard’s Thiselton-Ricouer hermeneutic (2013). The theoretical perspective is informed by Thiselton’s ‘two horizons’ (1980; 1992) and N.T. Wright’s ‘five act’ hermeneutic (1992; 2013). The epistemology involves both critical realism and ontological realism. More recently the Church of England has published its Vision for Education (Church of England Education Office, 2016b). This initial articulation of a Christian vision, underpinned by both theological and educational thinking, is a useful starting place for further theological reflection. In articulating a theology of education based on ‘hope’ using the Bible as its inspiration, this research seeks to contribute a fresh perspective on the purpose and practice of Christian education. Findings show that when the resurrection of Jesus Christ is viewed as a new beginning rather than a positive conclusion for Jesus and his followers then resurrection offers ‘hope’ of transformation. The very task of education can be seen similarly, as an act of ‘hope’, transforming lives and opening up new horizons. A theology of education inspired by ‘hope’ recognises the complexity of the human condition. It looks to the future in a way that encompasses the present and past, with God as companion offering purpose and expectancy.

This thesis provided a systematic comparison of Religious Education (RE) as it has evolved in the secondary school curriculum of Scotland and Malawi, between 1970 and the present day (2010). It sought to draw analogies and, where valid, to indicate significant points of difference regarding key issues that underpin this development between two countries that also have a historical relationship dating back to 1859. This was a qualitative study which used the phenomenological research method. In both countries data was collected through field-based research using key informant interviews (n60), relevant documents and school surveys. The conceptual framework of the thesis was based on concepts and issues in the discourse of contemporary RE. The constant comparison strategy of data analysis was implemented in exploring issues that emerged in the research. To further facilitate the analysis of secondary school RE in Scotland and Malawi a thematic approach was adopted in which six key issues were identified and investigated. The first explored the historical problem of underdevelopment in RE. The second examined motives that engendered reforms in the RE curriculum. The third described the various curriculum changes in RE during the period under study. The fourth discussed contested spaces related to the micro-politics of RE. The fifth surveyed the level of provision in RE in different school contexts. The sixth and last assessed the current state of RE. The findings of this study suggested that despite some points of difference, there was greater similarity on salient issues that underpinned the nature of secondary school RE in the two countries, in areas such as the need for curriculum reform, micro-politics of reform, provision in schools and status of the subject. Given the challenges the subject faces in both Scotland and Malawi, the study concluded that without government intervention and support from other key stakeholders RE will continue to be regarded as a marginal curriculum subject.

This thesis represents a qualitative empirical investigation into “What is the contribution of poetry in clergy continuing ministerial education (CME) in the Church of England?” offering a sustained theological reflection on my professional practice as Bishop’s Clergy CME Adviser. Taking an ethnographic approach within a practical theological framework, I studied four facilitated clergy groups reading pre-selected poems and reflecting on personal experience of ministry in response. Research reflexivity was ensured through multiple methods, including auto-ethnographic poetry. The research shows that the affective character of poetic form and language stimulates emotional response in the critical appreciation of practice, sustaining diverse interpretations simultaneously, benefiting collegial clergy reflective practice through corporate construction of meaning. The effectiveness of appropriate ground-rules for small groups is recognised. The impact of historical-critical approaches in clergy hermeneutical strategies for reading privileged texts is acknowledged. I conclude that in facilitated group settings selected poetry offers clergy a generative space for reflection on ministry, suggesting poetry as a trans-disciplinary resource in reflective practice requiring refinement of pedagogy to take account of literary characteristics and participant hermeneutical approaches, developing a more critical approach to the use of poetry in clergy CME and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) more generally.

The Nobis Project is an innovative creative process approach to service-learning and global citizenship education aiming to teach secondary school students six dimensions of civic engagement: values, knowledge, skills, efficacy, commitment, and empathy. It guides students to comprehend current affairs and to devise ways to respond to local, national or global issues without direct contact with service recipients. This thesis examines the claims of the Nobis Project program using data collected from a series of five case studies each with an international focus. It analyzes how far the Nobis Project (1) realizes the goals of service-learning to teach civic engagement, and (2) teaches the civic goals of global citizenship. This thesis argues that the Nobis Project, refined in the light of this research, represents a significant contribution to the practice of service-learning in secondary schools. Its method incorporates an original creative-process model, a practice not usually found in service-learning. As a program, it redefines the scope of service-learning by including international service recipients, thus contributing to a recognized need of global citizenship education, opportunity for action.

The thesis begins in the author’s exposure to the inculturation issue as an adult theological educator in Africa and then in UK. The contemporary UK church faces a dilemma of ‘gospel’ and culture as sharp as in Africa. The research question is posed for the UK context as; is it possible to develop an educational course that will deliver inculturation, and if so what would be good practice within it? A cyclical ‘Kolbian’ methodology is chosen for the field research. It consists of three case studies of adult theological education courses which deal obliquely with the interaction of faith and culture in UK; a) the Alpha course in three different cultural contexts; b) A Lent Course linking a UK and African Diocese; c) the Education for Ministry course, in particular its imaginative methods of theological reflection. The case studies occur in series, rather than in parallel, as ‘research journey cycles.’ All the case studies make important conclusions leading to an affirmative response to the research question. Significant learning regarding good practice in pedagogy for inculturation is developed; imagination is presented as of primary importance. The thesis raises fundamental questions about hermeneutics which bridge inculturation and adult education. The individual nature of educational courses provides a limit to the conclusions.

The distinction between catechesis and religious education in Catholic schools is an important theme in contemporary Catholic educational thought. A firm and nuanced understanding of the nature of this relationship and its historical roots is essential to understanding both fields of study. The nature of this debate has been recognised by the Magisterium of the Catholic Church as crucial to the mission of the Catholic school. While Religious Education is vital to the unique identity of the Catholic school, too close an association with catechesis can lead to a blurring of distinctions. Contemporary Catholic thinking on this matter suggests the following accommodation: religious education is focussed on knowledge of Catholic thinking in theology and related cultural issues; catechesis explicitly focuses on faith development. The theology of communion (communio) assists Catholic educators to harmonise both concepts. Religious Education is thereby understood as a ‘shared project’ between catechesis and Catholic thinking on education.

I show how my previous MA research indicated useful data regarding motivation in secondary school Religious Education (RE) but needed augmented theoretical and empirical substance to inform a general pedagogy (chapter 1): to this end I address issues of adolescent agency and identity (chapter 2) and creativity (chapter 3). Draft recommendations for an active, creative, existential and hermeneutical RE pedagogy result from these augmentations (chapter 2, revised in chapter 3). The heart of this thesis is a classroom-based empirical study designed to apply and assess my recommendations for RE practice. I argue action research and ethnographic strategies fit for my field study purposes (chapter 4). I then present and analyse my field study data, identifying categories of student motivation in RE, namely dialogue with difference, existential or ethical interest and personal significance. These categories are seen to be highly compatible with my earlier draft recommendations for RE practice (chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8). Next, I integrate my data into a critique of Andrew Wright’s religious literacy pedagogy, arguing that Wright’s oppositions of language to experience and intrinsic to pragmatic value are misleading, but conceding that his fundmental principles are sound and that his recent theory overcomes some earlier difficulties. This includes consideration of Ninian Smart’s phenomenological Religious Studies and John Dewey’s educational philosophy. I go on to re-affirm that dialogue with difference, existential or ethical interest and personal significance are basic to what motivates RE pupils. Therefore, effective RE requires hermeneutical learning, including attention to the development of pupils’ own ideas and values over time; action research indicates ways for teachers to handle this requirement (chapter 9).

This thesis investigates a network of new independent Christian schools in England, with special reference to their teenage pupils. The place of faith-based schools in British society currently constitutes a contentious issue; the nature of this controversy is explored before a description and evaluation of the schools and their educational aims is given. A wide-ranging survey is then described. This survey investigated the views, values and beliefs of 695 teenage pupils who were receiving their education in the schools in 2006. Its purpose was to discover to what extent the aims of the schools were being realised amongst their older pupils. At the same time, the survey was designed to address the criticisms aimed at faith-based schools, particularly the charge that such schools might be inadequately preparing young people for life as citizens of modern Britain. The results reveal an unusual cohort of young people. The majority of the pupils claim to hold religious beliefs and values which differ from the current norms of British society but which would not necessarily jeopardise acceptable British citizenship. The data indicate that the schools are achieving their aims of enabling pupils to develop and retain the belief system and moral position taken by their parent bodies and founding churches. The results show that male pupils hold the same beliefs as female pupils and that the older pupils are as likely to be religious as are the younger. These findings differ from those found by similar surveys conducted in other British contexts. Finally, the data reveal the existence of a small subset of pupils who claim not to hold religious beliefs and whose views and values differ substantially from those of the majority of their fellow pupils. The data also suggest that the anomalous position of these pupils is not necessarily detrimental to their well-being.