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The research focused on evaluating the feasibility into Microwave Monolithic Integrated Circuits (MMIC) fabrication capability, in the UK, using novel material type: all ternary In0.52Al0.48As/In0.53Ga0.47As lattice matched to InP substrate double heterojunction bipolar transistor (DHBT) technology; with the potential for providing high speed HBTs. The demonstration of a MMIC capability would follow with the development of a BiFET process that would satisfy SELEX Galileo circuit business needs. The research project complexity is divide into 5 phases: phase 1, the development of a high frequency In0.52Al0.48As / In0.53Ga0.47As lattice matched to InP substrate DHBT technology; phase 2, development of passive components; phase 3, the creation of two VBIC physical models; phase 4, the creation of a Process Development Kit (PDK) and phase 5, the design, simulation and fabrication of a divide-by-2 frequency divider using the technology developed in phase 1. Phase 1, concluded with a DHBT epitaxial design and fabrication that produced devices with a peak high frequency performance f_t = 140GHz and f_max = 95GHz at a current density Jc ≈ 1mA/µm2. This was achieved through the optimisation of the epitaxial design to reduce the base transit time τb through the introduction of a quasi electric field and thinning of base layer. To the best of the author’s knowledge, this is the highest f_t performance for a 1µm emitter width all ternary In0.52Al0.48As / In0.53Ga0.47As DHBT. The design, simulation and fabrication of a divide-by-2 frequency divider were only made possible by the successfully development of passive components (phase 2) and the VBIC model and PDK creation (phase 3 and 4). The divide-by-2 frequency divider design and simulation was done via the use of the PDK. The simulations resulted in a divide-by-2 frequency divider with a maximum operating frequency of 27GHz at a minimum input power of 2dBm. The fabrication of the MMIC resulted in a transistor component yield of 69%, which unfortunately resulted in a divide-by-2 frequency divider circuit yield of 0%. The fabrication of MMIC circuits is not possible with current state of the fabrication environment; however the only obstacle the University of Manchester (UoM) faces is low active component yield. To increase the active component yield to the 95% level required for high circuit yields, large capital investment into the fabrication equipment and human time into setting up the fabrication process to a repeatable and reliable standard is required.

RNA interference (RNAi) is a process mediated by small RNAs (sRNA), which is significantly involved in the regulation of gene expression in plants. Diverse RNAi pathways can be divided into two basic mechanisms, which are post-transcriptional and transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS and TGS). Production of sRNAs is dependent on the presence of a double-stranded RNA molecule (dsRNA), which is cleaved by one of DCL proteins to produce sRNAs usually of 21-24 nt in length. One strand of the sRNA is subsequently loaded onto AGO protein. During PTGS, the AGO-sRNA complex interacts with the target RNA based on its sequence complementarity to the sRNA and cleaves it or blocks its translation. In the case of TGS, AGO interacts with plant-specific RNA Pol V and its transcripts, which are again complementary to the sRNA. This interaction allows assembling of a protein complex facilitating DNA and histone methylation inhibiting RNA Pol II transcription. There are numerous ways the dsRNA can arise. A significant part of dsRNA cell production is dependent on synthesising the complementary strand of the dsRNA by RDR6 (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 6). RDR6 is also involved in the process of the secondary sRNA formation. The significance of RDR6 during PTGS was examined using a GFP reporter gene either during...

La cryptogéine est un éliciteur protéique des réactions de défense chez le tabac sécrété par l’oomycète Phytophthora cryptogea. Son interaction avec un récepteur encore non identifié de la membrane plasmique déclenche une cascade d’événements de signalisation qui conduisent à une reprogrammation génique, à la diffusion d’un signal conférant une résistance systémique et, ultimement, à la mort des cellules directement exposées à cet éliciteur. Notre équipe avait précédemment mis en évidence une stimulation de la formation de vésicules d’endocytose quelques minutes après l’élicitation. Des études de microscopie électronique et d’inhibition pharmacologique avaient permis d’émettre l’hypothèse que cette endocytose était dépendante de la clathrine (CME). Ce processus essentiel des cellules eucaryotes concoure au maintien de l’homéostasie du plasmalemme. L’endocytose joue également deux rôles aux effets antagonistes lorsqu’elle est induite par un stimulus de l’environnement. Elle permet d’une part la production d’endosomes de signalisation qui vont délivrer le stimulus au cœur de la cellule, et assure d’autre part la désensibilisation de la membrane afin de préparer la cellule à percevoir d’autres stimuli.Mon travail de thèse avait pour objectif de confirmer que l’endocytose induite après traitement de cellules de tabac par la cryptogéine est bien dépendante de la clathrine et d’essayer de déterminer si elle est impliquée, directement ou indirectement, dans la transduction du signal d’élicitation et dans le développement des réactions de défense. Afin de visualiser in vivo la dynamique endocytaire, j’ai établi une suspension cellulaire de tabac exprimant une chaine légère de clathrine fusionnée à la GFP. La caractérisation de cette suspension par des approches biochimiques et par microscopie a confirmé l’induction d’une endocytose dépendante de la clathrine suite à l’élicitation par la cryptogéine. J’ai également développé une stratégie d’inhibition de la CME faisant appel à l’expression d’une version tronquée de la CHC, appelée hub, dont la propriété est d’empêcher la formation du manteau de clathrine à la membrane plasmique. La caractérisation d’une lignée cellulaire co-exprimant le marqueur d’endocytose GFP-CLC et le hub a montré qu’il était possible d’empêcher l’endocytose à clathrine induite par la cryptogéine sans altérer de façon significative l’endocytose constitutive. L’utilisation de cette stratégie d’inhibition sélective a ainsi démontré que des événements précoces induits à la membrane plasmique par la cryptogéine, telles l’alcalinisation du milieu extracellulaire et la production de formes actives de l’oxygène, ne sont pas dépendants de la CME. L’impact de l’invalidation de l’endocytose induite sur le déclenchement des réponses tardives a été étudié sur des cellules en suspension et sur des plants de tabac. Mes travaux ont révélé que l’endocytose contribuait de façon réduite à la reprogrammation du transcriptome et au déclenchement de la mort cellulaire programmée. Des travaux préliminaires effectués sur des plantes exposées à divers pathogènes du tabac ont montré que l’expression du hub affecte la sensibilité des plantes à certains de ces pathogènes. L’ensemble de ces travaux ouvrent la voie à une étude plus intégrative du rôle de l’endocytose dans l’interaction tabac-cryptogéine / Cryptogein, a protein secreted by the oomycete Phytophthora cryptogea, is an elicitor of defense reaction in tobacco. Cryptogein binding to an unidentified receptor of the plasma membrane triggers a signaling cascade that leads to changes in gene expression, production of a systemic acquired resistance signal, and cell death. Our lab previously reported a stimulation of endocytosis a few minutes after elicitation. Electron microscopy and pharmacological studies evidenced that this endocytosis is clathrin-mediated. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is a fundamental eukaryotic cell process that ensures plasma membrane homeostasis. It also plays two antagonistic roles in extracellular signal transduction either by producing endosomes that convey the signal into the heart of the cell, or by downregulating plasma membrane receptors to attenuate cellular responsiveness and prepare the cell for subsequent signals.The aim of my thesis was to confirm clathrin dependence of cryptogein-induced endocytosis and to find out whether endocytosis is involved in cryptogein signaling and defense reactions. I established a tobacco cell suspension expressing clathrin light chain fused to GFP to follow CME in living cells. Biochemical and microscopic characterization of the cell suspension confirmed that cryptogein-induced endocytosis is clathrin-mediated. I also developed a dominant-negative strategy to inhibit CME by expressing a truncated form of clathrin heavy chain, the hub domain, which prevents clathrin-coated pit formation at the plasma membrane. Characterization of a cell line co-expressing GFP-CLC and the hub domain showed that it is possible to hinder cryptogein-induced CME without significantly altering constitutive endocytosis. This selective inhibition strategy revealed that cryptogein-induced early signaling events such as alkalinisation of the extracellular medium and reactive oxygen species production are CME-independent.Consequences of induced-CME inhibition on later responses to cryptogein were studied in cell suspension and in tobacco plants. My results showed that endocytosis contributes in a minor way to transcriptome reprogramming and cell death induction. Moreover, preliminary results suggested that hub expression increases the plant’s sensitivity to several pathogens. Altogether these results open up the prospect of addressing the role of CME during tobacco-cryptogein interaction in a more integrative view

Chez tous les eucaryotes, la régulation de l’expression génique est primordiale pour le contrôle du cycle cellulaire. Un large éventail de gènes, incluant des régulateurs essentiels du cycle, mais aussi d’autre gènes impliqués dans la transduction du signal, la régulation hormonale et le métabolisme sont ainsi exprimé à certaines phases du cycle. Ces changements sont contrôlés à de multiples niveaux, notamment de façon transcriptionnelle et post-traductionnelle. Chez les mammifères, il est aujourd’hui évident que les micro ARNs contribuent à cette régulation en ciblant spécifiquement les transcrits d’un grand nombre de gènes régulés au cours du cycle. Cependant, nous n’avons que très peu d’informations à ce jour concernant le rôle des petits ARNs sur le contrôle de la prolifération cellulaire chez les plantes. Mes travaux de thèse ont permis de démontrer que la perte d’AGO1 affecte la prolifération cellulaire et l’activité du méristème racinaire. Nous avons également séquencé les transcrits, les petits ARNs et le dégradome à partir de cellules BY-2 synchronisées afin de déterminer le répertoire et la fonction des petit ARNs au cours du cycle cellulaire. / In all eukaryotes, regulated gene expression is key to orchestrate cell cycle progression. Not only genes encoding important core cell cycle regulators, but also genes of a variety of other factors involved in signal transduction, hormonal regulation and metabolic control are expressed at specific time points of the cell cycle. These changes in gene expression are controlled at multiple levels, including transcriptional and post-translational controls. In mammals, it became evident that microRNAs contribute to this regulation by targeting the transcripts of numerous cell cycle-regulated genes. However, in plants we still know little about the regulatory roles of small RNAs in the control of cell proliferation. During my thesis, I showed that depletion of Arabidopsis AGO1 impairs cell proliferation and root meristem activity. To further determine the repertoire and role of sRNAs in cell cycle regulation, we thus sequenced total RNAs and small RNAs, AGO1-associated small RNAs and the RNA degradome of synchronized BY2 cells at S-, G2-, M- and G1-phases of the cell cycle.

Glyoxylate reductase (GLYR) is a key enzyme in plant metabolism which catalyzes the detoxification of both photorespiratory glyoxylate and succinic semialdehdye, an intermediate of the γ-aminobutyrate (GABA) pathway. Two isoforms of GLYR exist in plants, GLYR1 and GLYR2, and while GLYR2 is known to be localized in plastids, GLYR1 has been reported to be localized in either peroxisomes or the cytosol. Here, the intracellular localization of Arabidopsis GLYR1 was reappraised by conducting microscopy-based experiments that address some novel mechanisms by which proteins can be directed to peroxisomes. For instance, the C-terminal tripeptide sequence of GLYR1, -SRE, despite its resemblance to a type 1 peroxisomal targeting signal, was not sufficient for peroxisomal targeting. Collectively, the results define the cytosol as the intracellular location of GLYR1 and provide a useful reference for future studies of proteins proposed to be localized to peroxisomes and/or the cytosol. / NSERC

Microtubules (MTs) are one of the essential cell structure that participate in a number of key events in the plant cells and their properties and functions are influenced and modified by many other proteins. These proteins belong to a group of microtubule- associated proteins (MAPs, microtubule-associated proteins). One of the MAPs, the molecular chaperone Hsp90, examines and fulfills a large number of different functions in the cell. Its colocalization with MTs has been demonstrated previously by Freudenreich and Nick (1998) and Petrášek et al. (1998). However, direct interaction with MTs was described only recently using cosedimentation assay. The specific cytosolic isoform of tobacco Hsp90 bound to MTs was called Hsp90_MT due to its ability to bind MTs. It has been also found that the binding to MTs is independent on the activity of ATP (Krtková et al., 2012). The authors also described a positive effect of Hsp90_MT on MT recovery after their exposure to cold stress. Although MT cytoskeleton dynamics is influenced by a large number of MAPs, it is surprising that the molecular mechanism of MAPs interaction with MTs and their MT-binding domains have not been described yet. Therefore, we decided to determine the tobacco Hsp90_MT MT-binding domain by production of a set of recombinant proteins...

1. Abstract ARP2/3 complex is well studied in case of animals, it plays key roles in motility of cells and intracellular organels. It's malfunctions result in severe growth disorders and even lethality of affected cells. On the contrary, plant cells do not exhibit such dramatic phenotype of ARP2/3 complex mutations like it is by animals. It is possible that just the different life strategies of plants and animals contribute to differences in a way how animal and plant cells use their cytoskeleton, where ARP2/3 complex is it's part as well. It is highly conserved 7 protein complex from yeast to human. His main functions are creation of new "de novo" actin filaments, actin branched filaments network. Some of the parasite organisms are capable of missusing its nucleator activity to actively move inside of host cell. Because of the plant cells are sourounded by the cell wall, which give them support in creating various shapes and also hinders active movement of the whole cell body, it is likely that ARP 2/3 complex could be possibly involved in novel plant specific functions as well. If we think about the different life strategy of plants and animals we can not ignore all the things these two kingdoms have in common regarding to cytoskeleton processes. That is the need both for vesicular transport and...

The constant endeavor to measure and record neural signals from the human brain and anticipate the results to figure out the mechanism which governs the functionality of our brain and its true behavior is the major driving force behind this thesis. Neural recording integrated circuits (ICs) are often inserted directly into the brain, with a set of probes for sensing these action potentials (and local field potentials), and appropriate circuitry for amplifying the neural signals (Pre-Amp), sampling and converting the analog signals to digital (ADC) and transmitting the resulting digital signal (Transmitter) to a nearby reader instrument (Receiver). Action potentials are comprised of signals typically looking like spikes having a peak voltage of 1-2mV, whereas local field potentials are continuous signals generally having an amplitude of around 100-200μV often with a dc component of several mV. Fourier analysis of action potentials and local field potentials show frequency components in the range of 0.1 Hz up to 10kHz. This thesis proposes a low-power 5-bit algorithmic A/D converter to feed a 5-stage serial shift register for use in sampling and converting a presumed neuron action potential signal at the rate of 20k samples/sec. In addition to that, a low-power preamp with at least 40dB gain and a low-pass type spectrum having a unity-gain frequency of at least 20MHz is used to amplify the input signal. The algorithmic A/D converter includes a sample-and-hold circuit for sampling the analog action potential spike at a rate of 20kHz. The ADC utilizes an X2 gain circuit based on a capacitive redistribution technique. A less complex circuit in terms of dependency on Capacitor sizing and their non-ideal effects is the key factor for selecting this type of ADC which can be used for neural recording applications. All the circuits are designed based on the IBM/Global Foundries 8HP 130nm BiCMOS technology.