Text in English / This is a study of community protest against Barberton Mines (Pty) Ltd. It is a study of conflict and conflict resolutions. Barberton Mines (Pty) Ltd is one of the three gold mining companies in Barberton, and is in dire need of a bankable community/stakeholder relation management strategy, which should at least reduce, if not eliminate, the endless violent community protests against its operations. Methodologically, the study is predicated on a qualitative approach backed by oral interviews and the use of a survey. The study reveals that as much as the community appreciates Barberton Mines for its delivery in socio-economic development initiatives, Barberton Mines’ recruitment and procurement departments are not doing any justice in terms of preferred policy in favour of the locals/Barberton community. This is a key source of conflict. The results also reveal that the Barberton Mines Transformation Trust (BMTT), a vehicle established for socioeconomic development in Barberton, is considered to be ineffective by the community and is one of the causes of the conflict. The resolutions of the conflict include the effective implementation of the mining legislation and unrolling of the Mining Charter. The effectiveness and lack thereof of these conflict resolutions are subjected to analysis in this study. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The source of the K2O in the K2O-rich ~3.45 Ga felsic intrusive rocks of the H6 unit in the Hooggenoeg Formation of the Onverwacht Group in the Barberton Granite Greenstone Terrain (BGGT) is examined in this study. This is of particular research interest because the Paleoarchaean rock record is considered to lack K2O-rich magmatic rocks. Previous studies on the felsic igneous rocks of the H6 unit have proposed that these rhyolites are K-metasomatised eruptive equivalents of the sodium-rich ~3.45 Ga TTGs of the BGGT and that the K-feldspar crystals in the rocks formed as a consequence of subsolidus replacement of plagioclase by K-feldspar. Furthermore, the timing of K-metasomatism has previously been related to the formation of the Buck Ridge Chert (BRC), which overlies the H6 unit. However, it has recently been demonstrated from granitic clasts in the conglomerate layer at the base of the Moodies sucession that K2O-rich magmatic rocks formed concurrently with TTG magmas during each of three episodes of TTG magmatism observed in the BGGT. Consequently, the hypothesis of a metasomatic origin for the K2O-rich character of the felsic rocks of the H6 unit requires further examination. Previous studies of the chemistsry of felsic volcanic rocks within the H6 unit were based on relatively low numbers of samples. This study has examined a substantial set of the freshest material available. Two varieties of felsic volcanic rocks were identified; K2O-rich, CaO-poor, Na2O-poor rhyolites and Na2O-rich, CaO-poor, K2O-poor Na-rhyolites. The K2O- rich rhyolite variety is dominant. Consequently, it is possible that the K2O-rich character of these rocks represents a primary magmatic signature. However, this judgment is complicated by the presence of a greenschist-facies metamorphic overprint at 3.2 Ga, which has resulted in complete replacement of micrystalline groundmass and partial replacement of the phenocryst assemblages by greenschist- and sub-greenschist-facies mineral assemblages, which undoubtedly allowed possible shifts in chemical compositions In this thesis, I test the source of K2O in these rocks by using the porphyritic textures of the rocks as an indication of the primary composition of the magmas they were formed from. These textures are typically defined by K-feldspar or albite and quartz phenocrysts within a microcrystalline groundmass. The rocks containing albite are Na-rich (Na-rhyolites) whereas the rocks defined by K-feldspar phenocrysts are rhyolites. XRD study of the structural state of the K-feldspar phenocrysts in the rhyolites indicates that these crystals are orthoclase and intermediate microcline, i.e. medium temperature K-feldspar polymorphs. The modal proportions of K-feldspar, quartz and microcrystalline groundmass in the rhyolites were calculated by using image analysis software. The compositions of the feldspar minerals were determined by electron beam analysis. Minimum bulk rock K2O content of the rhyolites were calculated from the proportions of K-feldspar crystals and their compositions. Even where the proportion of K-feldspar phenocrysts is relatively low (~ 30%), the calculated minimum bulk-rock K2O content is still above 5 wt%. The HREE slope (GdN/LuN) of the felsic porphyritic rocks of the H6 rhyolites is similar to that of ~3.45 Ga TTG plutons and steeper than that of granitic clasts of identical age contained in the basal conglomerate of the Moodies Group. Hence this study has illustrated that the rhyolites of the H6 unit were primary K-feldspar-rich, K2O-rich magmas that formed contemporarily with the ~3.45 Ga TTGs. This implicitly means that rhyolitic volcanism was more wide spread than previously thought in the Paleoarchaean and that it occurred together with the intrusion of the ~3.45 Ga TTGs in the BGGT. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die bron van die K2O in die K2O-ryk ~ 3,45 Ga felsiese vulkaniese rotse van die H6-eenheid in die Hooggenoeg formasie van die Onverwacht Groep in die Barberton Graniet Groensteen Terrein (BGGT) is in hierdie studie ondersoek. Dit is van besondere navorsingsbelang omdat die Paleoargeïse gesteenterekord beskou word as vry van magmatiese K2O ryke gesteentes. Vorige studies oor die felsiese vulkaniese rotse van die H6 eenheid het voorgestel dat hierdie rioliete K-gemetasomatiese eruptiewe ekwivalente van die natrium-ryke ~ 3,45 Ga TTGs van die BGGT is en dat die K-veldspaat kristalle in die gesteentes gevorm is as gevolg van subsolidus vervanging van plagioklaas deur K-veldspaat. Verder is die tydsberekening van K-metasomatisme voorheen gekoppel aan die vorming van die Buck Ridge Chert (BRC) wat die felsiese H6 eenheid bedek. Dit is egter onlangs aangetoon dat K2O-ryke magmatiese rotse gelyktydig met TTG magmas gevorm is tydens elk van drie episodes van TTG magmatisme waargeneem in die BGGT. Gevolglik vereis die hipotese van 'n metasomatiese oorsprong vir die K2O-ryke karakter van die felsiese gesteentes van die H6 eenheid verdere ondersoek. Vorige studies van die felsiese vulkaniese gesteentechemie in die H6 eenheid is gebaseer op 'n relatief klein getal monsters. Hierdie studie het 'n aansienlike stel van die varsste materiaal beskikbaar vir analise ondersoek. Twee variëteite van peralumineuse felsiese vulkaniese gesteentes naamlik 'n K2O-ryk, CaO-arm, Na2O-arm rioliet en Na2O-ryk, CaO-arm, K2O-arm Na-rioliet. Die K2O-ryke rioliet variëteit is meer oorheersend as die Na-rioliete. Dit is dus moontlik dat die K2O-ryk karakter van hierdie rotse 'n primêre magmatiese kenmerke verteenwoordig. Hierdie uitspraak is egter bemoeilik deur die teenwoordigheid van 'n groenskisfasies metamorfe oorprint op 3,2 Ga, wat gelei het tot die volledige vervanging van mikrokrisstalyne grondmassa en gedeeltelike vervanging van fenokrist samestellings deur groenskis en sub-groenskisfasies minerale samestellings en wat ongetwyfeld toegelaat het vir 'n moontlike verskuiwing in chemiese samestelling. In hierdie tesis toets ek die bron van K2O in hierdie gesteentes deur gebruik te maak van die vulkaniese teksture van die gesteentes as 'n aanduiding van die primêre samestelling van die magmas waaruit hulle gevorm het. Hierdie teksture word gewoonlik gedefinieer deur K-veldspaat of albiet en kwarts fenokriste binne 'n grondmassa van wat vroeërglasoorblyfsels was. Die rotse wat albiet bevat is Na-ryk (Na-rioliete) terwyl die rotse gedefinieer deur K-veldspaat fenokriste rioliete is. XRD studie van die strukturele toestand van die K-veldspaat fenokriste in die rioliete dui aan dat hierdie kristalle ortoklaas en intermediêre mikroklien is, dit wil sê die hoër temperatuur K-veldspaat polimorfe. Die modale proporsies van K-veldspaat, kwarts en glasoorblyfsels in die rioliete is akkuraat bereken deur gebruik te maak van beeld analise sagteware. Verder is die samestellings van die veldspaat minerale bepaal deur die elektronstraal analise. Minimum grootmaat rots K2O inhoud van die rioliet is berekén vanaf die fase verhouding van K-veldspaat en hul komposisies. Resultate dui daarop dat selfs waar die verhouding van K-veldspaat phenocrysts is relatief laag (~ 30%), die berekende minimum K2O grootmaat rots samestelling is nog steeds bo 5 wt%. Die REE-helling (GDN / Lun) van felsiese porphyritic rotse van die H6 is soortgelyke relatief tot die REE helling van ~ 3,45 Ga TTGs en steiler REE helling relatief tot granitiese klaste vervat in die basale konglomeraat van die Moodies-groep. Dus het hierdie studie getoon dat die rioliete van die H6-eenheid primêre K-veldspaat-ryke, K2O-ryke en peralumineuse magmas was wat gevorm is terselfdertyd met die ~3,45 Ga TTGs. Dit beteken implisiet dat riolitiese vulkanisme meer wyd verspreid was as wat voorheen gedink is in die Paleoargeïkum en dat dit tesame met die indringing van die ~ 3,45 Ga TTGs in die BGGT plaasgevind het.

Cotemporary museum theory calls for dialogue as a means of making museums multi-­‐ vocal and representative of larger audiences. Dialogue is seen to be a break with prior modernist practices and epistemology. However, in most cases what is meant by dialogue and how to implement it is not made clear. I proposed using the Community of Enquiry Approach to dialogue in the development of the Travelling Museum. The Travelling Museum is a community museum based at ‘The Centre’ on the land of the Swazi chief in Emjindini. I was concerned that labelling the community and associating the museum with the chief could perpetuate essentialised ideas of what it meant to be Swazi. I was also conscious of not wanting to be the ‘outsider expert’ and for the museum to be developed by the community it was intended for. It was for these reasons that I decided to employ the ideas of dialogue. While implementing dialogue through the Community of Enquiry, I started to question whether this method of dialogue could become normative, and whether it excluded or silenced certain members. I wanted to locate this approach to dialogue on a larger theoretical base, in order to understand how dialogue challenges and departs from modernism and moves into postmodernism. In order to do this in the Report I explore postmodern and modern theories of knowledge and difference. My research method is to use critical incidents. These are moments of noticing or jarring in my practice, which when interpreted allow me to interrogate theory and practice. The first incident questions my openness to the other where I raise concerns of relativism. The second and third incidents address issues of power and access in museums. I conclude by recommending a new role for the museum. No longer in a role of cultural authority, museums can take on the new role of artist. As an artist the museum can be multi-­‐partial and act as social commentator, provocateur and catalyst for change (Gogan, 2005, p.60 ).

A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg March 2016 / This study aims to provide a comprehensive description of the Flora, biogeography and diversity of the serpentine outcrops of Barberton Greenstone Belt in Mpumalanga, South Africa in order to set conservation priorities for these areas. About 30 large and many smaller serpentine outcrops form part of the Barberton Greenstone Belt and consist of various combinations of serpentinized minerals. Seven outcrops were selected to be studied in detail. A floristic analysis recorded 744 species and subspecies, 319 genera and 94 families. The flora includes 33 taxa endemic to serpentine soils and six taxa, which are hyperaccumulators of nickel. The endemic taxa make up 41 % of the endemics of the Barberton Centre of Endemism. The serpentine flora was found to be different to the surrounding non-serpentine vegetation in terms of numbers of species per family, the ratios of dicotyledons to monocotyledons and familial composition. The Asteraceae and the Anacardiaceae support a higher number of endemics than expected, which suggests genetic pre-adaptation within these families and specifically within the genera Berkheya, Helichrysum and Ozoroa. Most of the endemic taxa exhibit long-range dispersal suggesting gene flow between populations on different outcrops. The endemics represent a mix of neo-endemics and paleoendemics. Non-parametric species richness estimators used to predict the species richness of each site, indicated that five serpentine outcrops have higher species richness than the surrounding non-serpentine areas. Indices of diversity calculated showed similar patterns to those of the species richness estimates. The Barberton Greenstone Belt serpentine outcrops show relatively high plant diversity when compared to some other serpentine outcrops around the world. Beta diversity calculated for each site was not correlated with altitude and weakly correlated with the size of outcrops. Species turnover between outcrops is high and is positively correlated with the geographical distance between outcrops. Diversity at higher taxonomic levels were calculated, and results suggest that genera have some potential for facilitating the ranking of outcrops in terms of biological richness to select sites for conservation planning. Less than 30% of serpentine outcrops are adequately conserved. Species and genus richness and endemism were used to select five outcrops that have high conservation priority / MT2016

Les cherts archéens permettent de contraindre les environnements primitifs qui ont vu l'apparition de la vie sur Terre. Ces roches siliceuses se forment selon trois processus : les C-cherts (cherts primaires) se forment par précipitation chimique de silice océanique sur le plancher, sous la forme d'une boue siliceuse ou en tant que ciment dans les sédiments de surface; les F-cherts (cherts de fracture) précipitent dans les fractures de la crôute depuis les fluides circulant; les S-cherts (cherts secondaires) sont issus de la silicification de roches préexistantes lors de la percolation de fluides enrichis en silice. Ces processus sont largement acceptés mais des questions majeures subsistent : comment reconnaître ces différents types de chert ? Quelle est l'origine de la silice et sous quelle forme a-t-elle précipité ? Quel signal chimique est porté par les cherts et comment s'en servir pour les reconstructions paléo-environnementales ? Ces questions sont abordées à travers trois sites de la ceinture de roches vertes de Barberton, en Afrique du Sud. L'approche adoptée combine l'analyse des structures sédimentaires et de déformation, de la pétrologie et de la composition chimique et isotopique de ces unités. Dans ces sites, la formation des cherts est étroitement liée à l'environnement de mise en place. La sédimentation clastique (turbidites) est à l'origine des C-cherts de Komati River, déposés sous la forme d'une boue siliceuse par adsorption de silice sur les particules argileuses en suspension. En absence de contribution continentale, les alternances de cherts noirs et blancs de Buck Reef sont interprétées comme issues de variations climatiques à l'échelle saisonnières (chert noir), voire glaciaires/inter-glaciaires (chert blanc). Les cherts de fracture de Barite Valley sont liés à la précipitation de silice depuis une suspension colloïdale thixotrope remontant à travers la croûte. La composition chimique des cherts est contrôlée par leur environnement de mise en place, et représente un mélange entre une phase siliceuse et une phase contaminante, indépendamment des processus qui ont précipité la silice. Les cherts de Komati River et de Barite Valley sont enrichis en Al, K, Ti, HFSE et en REE, ce qui est attribué à la contamination de la matrice siliceuse par la présence de phyllosilicate. Une telle contribution clastique peut expliquer les larges gammes de δ30Si dans les cherts de Komati River (-0.69‰à +3.89‰), et la majorité des valeurs positives est probablement liée à la contribution de l'eau de mer. Dans les dykes de Barite Valley, les δ30Si très négatifs (-4.5‰ à +0.22‰) sont cohérents avec l'origine hydrothermale basse température des fluides initiaux. A Buck Reef, l'absence de contribution continentale s'exprime dans les cherts blancs par une minéralogie exclusivement microquartzitique et par des concentrations extrêmement faibles en éléments traces (i.e. ΣHFSE et ΣREE<1ppm). 2% de carbonates et 3-4% de matériel continental (e.g. argiles) suffisent à masquer le signal siliceux dans ces cherts purs. Nous ne pouvons conclure sur la présence d'un signal océanique dans ces cherts par manque de fiabilité des proxys océaniques modernes (appauvrissement en LREE, enrichissement en La et Y). Reconnus à la fois dans des quartz océaniques, hydrothermaux, magmatiques et pegmatitiques, ils ne permettent pas d'identifier un signal d'eau de mer dans les cherts archéens. Les δ 18O de ces cherts indiquent la présence de circulations fluides secondaires à moins de 100°C, et leurs δ 30Si négatifs ou positifs (-2.23‰ et +1.13‰ en moyenne) montrent la contribution de fluides différents au moment de leur formation. Le couplage des observations pétrologiques et de terrain est la seule approche fiable pour reconnaître le mode de mise en place des cherts. Leur composition chimique dépend plus des conditions environnementales que des caractéristiques du fluide initial.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The compositions of tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG)-series rocks from the Barberton Granite-Greenstone Terrain (BGGT) of Southern Africa vary in terms of major element concentrations (leuco-trondhjemites to tonalites), trace elements (e.g. Sr, Rb, REE) and degree of HREE depletion [(La/Yb)N ~ 0.50 - 121]. These geochemical parameters have been interpreted to have significance for the geodynamic processes that produced TTG magmas, particularly the depth of the source. In the Nelshoogte pluton, trondhjemite emplacement occurred prior to and during (D2)-tectonism, and hornblende-bearing tonalites/granodiorites occur as intrusive plugs within the trondhjemite. The geochemical range portrayed by the ca. 3230 Ma Nelshoogte pluton covers almost the whole range portrayed by all the TTG rocks of the BGGT, formed in the time interval 3550 to 3230 Ma. U-Pb zircon dating reveals no significant differences in apparent ages between the trondhjemites and tonalites of the Nelshoogte pluton; all lie between ca. 3240 and 3220 Ma. A/CNK- and Ti-maficity correlations within the Nelshoogte pluton show behaviour typical of I-type granitic rocks, confirming the metamafic character of the source and the involvement of a peritectic garnet and clinopyroxene component in the magmas. The REE and traceelement patterns resemble those of both ca. 3450 Ma TTG plutons and other ~ 3230 Ma TTG plutons in the BGGT. This suggests that these different generations of TTG magmas were generated from similar sources and by similar processes. The geochemical details are consistent with a metamafic source which underwent melting at high pressure. This TTG source was fundamentally different from the more potassic source/s that produced the younger 3100 Ma granites. Additionally, high Zr/Sm and low Nb/Ta ratios in the Barberton TTG rocks suggest that the Nelshoogte pluton originated as a group of chemically distinct magmas, in a similar way to other ~ 3200 Ma TTGs. The protoliths of ~ 3450 Ma plutons and ~ 3200 Ma plutons might typically be rutile-bearing eclogite and/or 10 to 30 % garnet bearing amphibolite. The geochemical features of the Barberton TTGs suggest similar source compositions, but different pressures of partial melting. For the ca. 3230 Ma plutons, the rocks of the Badplaas pluton and the Nelshoogte trondhjemites/tonalites correspond to the high-pressure magmas, as reflected by high Sr content, as well as high Sr/Y and (La/Yb)N ratios. In contrast, the Kaap Valley TTGs and Nelshoogte granodiorites reflect the melting of a similar source at moderate pressure. Furthermore, the Hf isotope data; Hft (+ 0.1 to + 1.9) and TDM model ages (3330 - 3230 Ma), suggest that the source rocks are ~ 20 to 100 Myr older than the pluton. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die samestellings van tonaliet-trondhjemiet-granodioriet (TTG)-reeks gesteentes vanaf die Baberton Graniet-Groensteen terrien (BGGT) van Suiderlike Afrika verskil in terme van hoofelement konsentrasies (leuko-trondhjemiete tot tonaliete), spoorelemente (bv. Sr, Rb en seldsameaarde-elemente(SAE)) en ook van swaar seldsameaarde-element (SSAE) uitputting [(La/Yb)N ~ 0.50 - 121]. Deur interpritasie is daar vasgestel dat hierdie geochemiese beperkings betekenis dra vir die geodinamiese prosesse wat TTG magmas produseer het, en veral vir die diepte van die bron. In die Nelshoogte pluton het trondhjemiet inplasing voor en gedurende (D2)-tektonisme voorgekom en horingblende-draende tonaliet/granodioriet kom voor as intrusiewe proppe binne-in die trondhjemiet. Die geochemiese reeks wat uitgebeeld is deur die ~ 3230 Ma Nelshoogte pluton ondersteun byna die hele reeks wat uitgebeeld is deur al die TTG gesteentes van die BBGT wat gevorm het gedurende die tydsinterval 3550 tot 3230 Ma. U-Pb sirkoon datering openbaar geen merkwaardige verskille in ouderdomme tussen die trondhjemiete en tonaliete van die Nelshoogte pluton nie. Al die ouderdomme lê tussen 3240 en 3220 Ma. A/CNK- en Ti-mafisiteit korrelasies binne die Nelshoogte pluton toon die tipiese gedrag van I-tipe granitiese gesteentes, en bevestig sodoende die metamafiese karakter van die bron, asook die betrokkenheid van ‘n peritektiese granaat en klinopirokseen component in die magmas. Die seldsameaarde-element en spoorelement patroone lyk soos dié van albei ~ 3450 Ma plutons en ander ~ 3230 Ma TTG plutons in die BGGT. Dit stel voor dat hierdie verskillende generasies van TTG magmas genereer was vanaf soortgelyke bronne en ook deur soortgelyke prosesse. Die geochemiese besonderhede stem ooreen met ‘n metamafiese bron wat smelting teen hoë druk ondergaan het. Hierdie TTG bron het fondamenteel verskil van die meer kalium-ryke bron/ne wat die jonger 3100 Ma graniete prodiseer het. In ‘n eenderse manier as ander ~ 3200 Ma TTG gesteentes, stel hoë Zr/Sm en lae Nb/Ta verhoudings in die Baberton TTG gesteentes verder voor dat die Nelshoogte pluton ontstaan het as ‘n groep chemies verskillende magmas. Die protoliete van ~ 3450 Ma plutons en ~ 3200 Ma plutons mag dalk tipies rutiel-draende eklogiet en/of 10 tot 30% granaat draende amfiboliet wees. Die geochemiese aspekte van die Baberton TTGs stel eenderse bron komposisies, maar verskillende drukke van gedeeltelike smelting voor. Vir die ~ 3230 Ma plutons stem die gesteentes van die Badplaas pluton en die Nelshoogte trondhjemiete/tonaliete ooreen met die hoë druk magmas, soos weerspieël deur hoe Sr inhoud, sowel as hoe Sr/Y en (La/Yb)N verhoudinge. In kontras weerspiel die Kaap Valley TTGs en Nelshoogte granodioriet die smelting van ‘n eenderse bron teen matige druk. Verder stel die Hf isotoop data; Hft (+ 0.1 to + 1.9) en TDM model ouderdomme (3330 - 3230 Ma) voor dat die bron gesteentes ~ 20 to 100 Mjr ouer is as die pluton.

Les komatiites sont des roches volcaniques ultrabasiques caractéristiques de l'Archéen et du Protérozoïque. Nous présentons ici une étude de la pétrogénèse des komatiites de la ceinture de Barberton en Afrique du Sud. Celle-ci comprend un modèle de fusion original bâti à partir de la constatation expérimentale qu'à très forte profondeur (P>13GPa), les liquides komatiitiques sont plus denses que la péridotite solide et donc ne peuvent pas s'échapper de leur source. Nous proposons que la fusion des sources des komatiites de Barberton ait commencée à une pression supérieure à 13GPa dans le manteau mais que les liquides produits soient restés retenus dans les sources jusqu'à ce que celles-ci n'aient dépassé, au cours de leur remonté, la limite de densité à laquelle le liquide devient moins dense que le résidu solide (à ~13GPa). Alors, les liquides auraient commencé à quitter leur source, d'abord doucement, puis de plus en plus vite alors que la différence de densité entre le liquide et le résidu solide s'accroissait. Les komatiites appauvries en Al, qui sont les plus abondantes à Barberton, auraient été produites par les premiers liquides qui ont quitté la source peu après le franchissement de la limite de densité. Les liquides qui quittèrent ensuite cette même source à moins forte pression, auraient formé les komatiites enrichies en Al. Les komatiites non-appauvries en Al auraient été produites par le même mécanisme mais par des sources de température potentielle plus forte. Une étude parallèle des trois systèmes isotopiques Sm-Nd, Lu-Hf et Re-Os nous a permis de contraindre l'histoire chimique des sources de komatiites de Barberton. Les systèmes Sm-Nd et Lu-Hf indiquent des sources appauvries et le système Re-Os une source chondritique. Nous proposons que les sources des komatiites aient été appauvries par l'extraction de croûte, mais qu'ensuite, leur composition en Re et Os aient été ramenées à leur valeur chondritique par le dernier épisode massif d‟accrétion de la Terre : " le vernis tardif ".

No / The ESA/Roscosmos ExoMars rover will be launched in 2018. The primary aim of the mission will be to find evidence of extinct or extant life by extracting samples from the subsurface of Mars. The rover will incorporate a drill that is capable of extracting cores from depths of up to 2 m, a Sample Preparation and Distribution System (SPDS) that will crush the core into small grains and a suite of analytical instruments. A key component of the analytical suite will be the Raman Laser Spectrometer (RLS) that will be used to probe the molecular and mineralogical composition of the samples. In this work we consider the capability of the proposed Raman spectrometer to detect reduced carbon (possibly associated with evidence for extinct life) and to identify the level of thermal alteration/maturity. The Raman analysis of 21 natural samples of shale (originating from regions exhibiting different levels of thermal maturity) is described and it is shown that reduced carbon levels as low as 0.08% can be readily detected. It is also demonstrated that the Raman spectra obtained with the instrument can be used to distinguish between samples exhibiting high and low levels of thermal maturity and that reduced carbon can be detected in samples exposed to significant levels of oxidation (as expected on the surface of Mars). (C) 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.