The main aim of doctoral thesis was the study on reactivity, transport and barrier properties of biocolloidal and synthetic polymeric substances by simple diffusion techniques. It was studied mainly the influence of basic physic-chemical parameters (temperature, concentration, pH and modification of material) on the reactivity and barrier ability of chosen compounds. Further substances were chosen as a model compounds: biocolloids (humic acids, alginate, chitosan, hyaluronate) and synthetic polymer (polystyrenesulfonate). Reactivity, barrier and transport properties of chosen substances were studied by interactions with oppositely charged basic organic dyes (methylene blue, rhodamine 6G, amido black 10B respectively) in hydrogels medium based on linear polysaccharide (agarose). The attention was also paid to basic physic-chemical characterisation (infrared spectroscopy, rheology, elemental analysis, thermogravimetry and scanning electron microscopy) of chosen materials and also hydrogels. Key part of the whole doctoral thesis was the optimization of selected diffusion techniques (diffusion cell technique and non-stationary diffusion in cuvettes) designated for the study on reactivity and barrier properties of wide range compounds (optimized method should be used as an universal method for simple and fast determination of reactivity of different compounds at given or changing conditions). The rate of reactivity, transport and barrier properties was determined based on fundamental diffusion parameters such as diffusion coefficients, break-through time so called lag time, interfacial concentration of chosen organic dye, apparent equilibrium constant, tortuosity factor, partition coefficient.

Cette étude porte sur des films composites à base d'amidon de manioc plastifié au glycérol et d'une argile kaolinique, comme charge minérale. L'origine et les mécanismes des interactions argile-amidon et leur rôle sur les propriétés des films ont été examinés. Pour vaincre le caractère non-expansible de la kaolinite, l'analyse du mécanisme de son exfoliation a été effectuée par insertion du diméthylsulfoxyde suivi d'un échange en milieux acétate d'éthyle et acétate d'ammonium. Une forte déstructuration de l'édifice cristallin de la kaolinite suite à l'échange est observée. La réassociation des feuillets après échange est désordonnée et permet d'escompter une meilleure dispersion de la kaolinite intercalée au sein d'un polymère. Ceci est confirmé par les analyses comparées de microscopies et de diffraction des rayons X sur des films incorporant diverses doses d'argile brute ou intercalée. L'abaissement de la température de transition vitreuse et du module élastique, ainsi que l'accroissement des effets de barrières à la décomposition thermique, à la diffusion de vapeur d'eau et à la transmission des UV visibles confirme la dispersion meilleure de la kaolinite intercalée. L'orientation des chaînes d'amidon et la diffusion du plastifiant transporté à l'interface par l'argile sont les mécanismes qui justifient l'effet plastifiant apporté par l'argile. L'interférence des interactions amidon-argile sur les interactions chaîne-chaîne au sein de l'amidon participe à la plasticité des films en diminuant la cristallinité. Les interactions amidon-argile se sont avérées faibles du fait des répulsions électrostatiques associées à des interactions associatives de type pont hydrogène / In this study, composites films made from glycerol plasticized cassava starch and a kaolinite clay, as mineral filler, were studied. The origin and mechanisms of clay-starch interactions and their role on films properties are examined. To deal with the unexpandable nature of kaolinite, an analysis of its exfoliation mechanism was done through dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) intercalation followed by DMSO displacement using ethyl acetate and ammonium acetate. The crystalline structure of kaolinite is deeply disordered upon DMSO displacement because of a random reassociation of the clay layers. A better dispersion of the intercalated kaolinite within a polymer matrix is then expected. This expectation was confirmed by the comparison of microscopes and X-ray diffraction analyses on films charged with various dosages of raw or DMSO intercalated kaolinite. The lowering of the glass transition temperature and the elastic modulus together with the increase of barrier effects to thermal decomposition, water vapour diffusion and visible UV transmission, confirmed that the intercalated kaolinite is better dispersed. The starch chain orientation coupled to increase starch/glycerol miscibility due to the transportation of glycerol at the interface by clay particles are the two mechanisms that better explained plasticization effect induced by the filler. The interference of starch-kaolinite interactions on starch chain-chain interactions caused a decrease of starch matrix cristallinity that contribute to increase plasticization. The starch-kaolinite interactions are found to be weak due electrostatic repulsion associated to some weak associative forces due to hydrogen bonds

Les copolymères de PVDC possèdent des propriétés barrières à l'oxygène et à la vapeur d'eau qui en font un matériau de choix pour l'industrie de l'emballage alimentaire ou pharmaceutique. Les latex à base de PVDC (noté latex de PVDC) sont actuellement stabilisés par des tensioactifs de faibles masses molaires susceptibles de migrer dans le film après enduction et de dégrader ses propriétés. Le but de ce projet est donc la synthèse de latex de PVDC sans tensioactif en présence d'agents RAFT macromoléculaires (macroRAFT) hydrophiles qui jouent le rôle de stabilisants des particules tout en étant liés de manière covalente à celles-ci. La copolymérisation par RAFT du VDC a tout d'abord été étudié en milieu homogène. Des copolymères statistiques et des copolymères à blocs amphiphiles à base de VDC bien définis ont été synthétisés. Ensuite, des macroRAFT hydrophiles non ioniques et sensibles au pH, préformés en milieu organique, ont montré la possibilité d'obtenir des latex de PVDC où le bloc hydrophile stabilisant était lié de manière covalente aux particules. Enfin, un procédé intégralement dans l'eau a été mis au point avec des macroRAFT sensibles au pH ou chargés de manière permanente, synthétisés en milieu aqueux et utilisés directement dans la polymérisation en émulsion. Des latex stables de PVDC ont été obtenus à des taux de solide de 40 % à partir de faibles quantités de macroRAFT répondant ainsi aux exigences industrielles du projet. Les films formés à partir de ces latex auto-stabilisés sont transparents, ne blanchissent que très peu lors du contact avec l'eau, contrairement au film commercial de référence et ont montré des propriétés barrières supérieures / Since poly(vinylidene chloride) (PVDC)-based copolymers present unique oxygen and water vapor barrier properties, they are a material of choice for pharmaceutical blisters and food packaging. PVDC-based latexes used in coating applications are generally stabilized by low molecular weight surfactants, which are prone to migration in the film after coating and cause material degradation. The main goal of our project is the synthesis of surfactant-free PVDC-based latexes by using hydrophilic macromolecular RAFT agents (macroRAFT). The latter plays the role of precursor of stabilizer and limits migration phenomena by being covalently bound to particles. In a first part, RAFT polymerization of VDC was studied in homogenous solution. Well-defined statistical and amphiphilic blocks copolymers based on PVDC were synthesized. Then, PVDC-based latexes were obtained by emulsion polymerization mediated by hydrophilic non-ionic and pH sensitive macroRAFT pre-formed in organic solvent. Those hydrophilic segments were chemically anchored to the particles. A fully water-based process was developed by synthesizing in water pH sensitive and permanently charged hydrophilic macroRAFT which were further used directly in emulsion polymerization without additional purification. Stable PVDC-based latexes exhibiting solids content of 40 % were obtained using a very small quantity of macroRAFT, fulfilling the industrial requirements. Drying of self-stabilized latexes led to transparent films which display only a slight whitening after water exposition contrary to the commercial film reference and better barrier properties

Des films composites et nanocomposites ont été élaborés par la méthode du casting à partir d’amidon natif de manioc. Ils ont été plastifiés par le glycérol et renforcés par des chargesminérales synthétiques de zéolithe Beta et de beidellite sodique. L’influence du type de charge, de l’état de la charge (lyophilisé ou non-lyophilisé ou séchage à l’air) ainsi que du taux de charge sur les propriétés mécaniques et barrières à la vapeur d’eau des films correspondants a été étudiée. Les valeurs de la solubilité dans l’eau et de la perméabilité à la vapeur d’eau des échantillons renforcés par des nanocristaux de zéolithe Beta lyophilisés sont plus grandes que celles du film de contrôle. Une augmentation significative des propriétés mécaniques, en particulier le module d’Young de ces films a aussi été observée. Une amélioration de la perméabilité à la vapeur d’eau des films composites contenant des cristaux de beidellite sodique et des films nanocomposites contenant des nanocristaux de zéolithe Beta a été trouvée. Tous les films ont été caractérisés par diffraction de rayons X. / Composite and nanocomposite films were prepared by casting method, using native cassava starch. The films were plasticized with glycerol and reinforced with synthetic Beta zeolite nanocrystals and Na-beidellite crystals. We studied the effect of the filler contents and type on the mechanical and water barrier properties of the resulting films. We found that filmsreinforced with lyophilized Beta zeolite nanocrystals present both high water solubility (WS) and high water vapor permeability (WVP) values compared to those of the pristine film. A drastic increase of the mechanical properties, especially in the Young’s modulus, of these films was also observed. An improvement of the WVP was found for composites prepared from Na-beidellite crystals and for nanocomposites from non-lyophilized Beta zeolite nanocrystals. All the films were characterized by X-ray diffraction.

As nanocomposites provide considerable improvements in material properties, scientists and engineers are focussing on biodegradable nanocomposites having superior material properties as well as degradability. This thesis has investigated the properties of biodegradable nanocomposites of the aliphatic thermoplastic polyester, poly (lactide acid) (PLA) and the synthetic biodegradable polyester, poly (butylene succinate) (PBS). To enhance the properties of this blend, nanometer-sized clay particles, have been added to produce tertiary nanocomposite. High aspect ratio and surface area of clay provide significant improvement in structural, mechanical, thermal and barrier properties in comparison to the base polymer. In this study, a series of PLA/PBS/layered silicate nanocomposites were produced by using a simple twin-screw extruder. PLA/PBS/Cloisite 30BX nanocomposites were prepared containing 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10 wt% of C30BX clay, while PLA and PBS polymers compositions were fixed at a ratio of 80 to 20. This study also included the validation of a gas barrier model for these biodegradable nanocomposites. WAXD indicated an exfoliated structure for nanocomposites having 1 and 3 wt% of clay, while predominantly development of intercalated structures was noticed for nanocomposites higher than 5 wt% of clay. However, TEM images confirmed a mixed morphology of intercalated and exfoliated structure for nanocomposite having 1 wt% of clay, while some clusters or agglomerated tactoids were detected for nanocomposites having more than 3 wt% of clay contents. The percolation threshold region for these nanocomposites lied between 3-5 wt% of clay loadings. Liquid-like behaviour of PLA/PBS blends gradually changed to solid-like behaviour with the increase in concentration of clay. Shear viscosity for the nanocomposites decreased as shear rate increased, exhibiting shear thinning non-Newtonian behaviour. Tensile strength and Young's modulus initially increased for nanocomposites of up to 3 wt% of clay but then decreased with the introduction of more clay. At high clay content (more than 3 wt%), clay particles tend to aggregate which causes microcracks at the interface of clay-polymer by lowering the polymer-clay interaction. Percentage elongation at break did not show any improvement with the addition of clay. PLA/PBS blends were considered as immiscible with each other as two separate glass transition and melting temperatures were observed in modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC) thermograms. MDSC showed that crystallinity of the nanocomposites was not much affected by the addition of clay and hence some compatibilizer is required. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that the nanocomposite containing 3 wt% of clay demonstrated highest thermal stability compared to other nanocomposites. Decrease in thermal stability was noticed above 3 wt% clay; however the initial degradation temperature of nanocomposites with 5, 7 and 10 wt% of clay was higher than that of PLA/PBS blend alone. Gas barrier property measurements were undertaken to investigate the transmission of oxygen gas and water vapours. Oxygen barrier properties showed significant improvement with these nanocomposites, while that for water vapour modest improvement was observed. By comparing the relative permeabilities obtained from the experiments and the model, it was concluded that PLA/PBS/clay nanocomposites validated the Bharadwaj model for up to 3 wt% of clay concentration.

Environmental concerns arising from the use of non-degradable plastics have resulted in search for suitable substitutes. The thesis deals with new nanostructured composites based on reinforcement of nanocellulose whiskers in "green" polymers such as xylan. Since the reinforcement filler and the matrix are both biobased and are thereby environmental friendly. Xylan incorporated with cellulose whiskers films provided with improved water and oxygen barrier properties. It appears that the high degree of crystallinity of cellulose whiskers, dense composite structure formed by the whiskers and rigidly hydrogen-bonded cellulose whiskers can cause cellulose whiskers to form integrated matrix which contribute to substantial benefit in the overall reduction of transmission rate. The spectral data obtained for the NCW/xylan nanocomposite films showed that the amount of xylan adsorbed to cellulose increases with the addition of NCW in the matrix. In addition, NMR T2 relaxation experiments studies were conducted to investigate the change in the nature of carbohydrate-water interactions as a result of NCW incorporation. These results facilitated an improved understanding of the mechanisms involved in the superior barrier and mechanical properties of xylan-whisker nanocomposite films. XRD studies show that when a xylan-whisker nanocomposite films is formed the mixing occurs on the atomic scale and NCW loading increases the matrix crystallinity.

In the past two decades polymer/clay nanocomposites (PCNs) have emerged as promising materials that exhibit remarkably improved properties when compared to conventional composites and pristine polymers. Such improvements strongly depend on the dispersion of clay nanoparticles in the polymer matrix. In spite of great efforts expended in characterizing clay dispersion, effective, simple and quantitative techniques are still needed. This work addresses this challenge by presenting new aspects of 1H solid-state NMR for quantifying clay dispersion in PCNs filled with clay containing paramagnetic ions. Employing these 1H solid-state NMR methods, some structure-processing-deformation relationships of PCNs were derived, and basic insights into nuclear relaxation and spin diffusion in PCNs were gained as well. Detailed models and analyses were described for 1H spin-lattice relaxation in the presence of paramagnetic clays in PCNs. Relaxation recovery was analytically correlated to clay dispersion in two ways: one is the initial relaxation recovery which is related to clay surface area, and the other is the spin-lattice relaxation time which is related to interparticle spacing. These two NMR observables were employed to quantitatively observe the evolution of clay morphology in poly(propylene)/clay (PP/MMT) nanocomposites upon equibiaxial stretching, as well as upon in situ uniaxial deformation. The initial relaxation recovery was independently utilized to determine the polymer-clay interfacial surface area and the degree of clay exfoliation. We demonstrated the capabilities of our models in quantitatively characterizing several materials, including poly(vinyl alcohol), nylon 6, poly(å-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and PP nanocomposites. These results were used to examine the dependence of clay morphology upon processing (strain ratio, strain rate, temperature), deformation (extension), component characteristics (polymer molecular weight, clay surface modification) and clay content. Effects of paramagnetic Fe3+ concentration and external magnetic field strength on 1H spin-lattice relaxation in PCNs were also investigated and discussed. In particular, low field separates the initial relaxation recovery into two stages: one related to clay content and the other related to the polymer-clay interfacial surface area. The low field was observed to enhance the paramagnetic contribution to the spin-lattice relaxation rate, increasing its sensitivity to clay morphology. In addition, measurements of long-distance spin diffusion coefficients for a variety of polymers and paramagnetic characteristics of organically modified clay were explored. Overall, the utility of NMR relaxometry in characterizing PCNs has been significantly expanded and successfully demonstrated in this dissertation.

This diploma thesis was focused on study of barrier and transport properties of selected polyelectrolytes in hydrogel matrices by using diffusion techniques. The study of these properties was performed in horizontal diffusion cells where is observed the change in diffusion probe concentration over time. Diffusion experiments were performed on an agarose hydrogel with the addition of alginate, hyaluronic acid, polystyrene sulfonate, humic acids and as a model probe rhodamine 6G was used. Important parts of this thesis are also the methods which characterize the substances and hydrogel matrices such as rheology and potentiometric titration. The main aim of this diploma thesis was to investigate the effect of interactions between passing model dye (rhodamine 6G) and the appropriate gel (agarose + polyelectrolyte) on the fundamental diffusion parameters (effective diffusion coefficient, lag time, etc.).

L’objectif premier de ce travail de thèse concerne la réalisation et la caractérisation de différents films multicouches afin d’étudier l’impact du phénomène de confinement des couches de polymères sur les propriétés barrières du polymère confiné et du film multicouche. Des films multicouches constitué de polycarbonate (PC) et de poly(m-xylène adipamide) (MXD6), polymères actuellement utilisés par les industries de l’emballage, ont tout d’abord été étudiés. Puis, dans un second temps, des films multicouches composés de polyesters biodégradables, à savoir des films multicouches d’acide polylactique (PLA) avec comme polymère confiné soit du poly(butylène succinate-co-butylène adipate) (PBSA) ou du poly(butylène succinate) (PBS), ont été élaborés.Une fois la structure multicouche obtenue et avoir confirmé l’amélioration de l’effet barrière grâce au phénomène de confinement, le deuxième objectif a été d’incorporer des charges lamellaires de type montmorillonite (Cloisite® 30B) dans la couche de polymère confiné dans le but d’accroitre davantage l’effet barrière du film multicouche sélectionné.Pour comprendre l’amélioration des propriétés barrières aux gaz et à l’eau des films multicouches élaborés, une analyse de la microstructure par DSC et DRX ainsi qu’une analyse des propriétés mécaniques ont été menées conjointement avec une observation par microscopie. / The objective of the work was the elaboration and the characterization of different multilayer films in order to study the impact of the confinement effect of the polymer layers on the barrier properties. Multilayer films of polycarbonate (PC) and poly(m-xylene adipamide) (MXD6), which are usual polymers for packaging industries, have been studied. Then, multilayer films composed of biodegradable polyesters, such as polylactic acid (PLA) with poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene adipate) (PBSA) or poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) as the confined layers, have been prepared and characterized.For the multilayer structure presenting improved barrier performances due to the confinement effect, the second objective was to insert lamellar clays (Cloisite® 30B) into the confined polymer layers to again improve the barrier properties of the multilayer film. To understand the gas and water barrier improvement of the multilayer films, a microscopic observation of the films and an analysis of the microstructure by DSC and XRD have been performed with mechanical properties measurements.

L’objectif de ce travail de thèse a été d’améliorer les propriétés barrière du polycarbonate (PC), polymère rigide et transparent utilisé dans l’industrie automobile comme matériau pour phares de voiture. Le PC est le siège de transferts de molécules de gaz et vapeurs provenant de l’intérieur et/ou de l’extérieur des optiques et également de migration de petites espèces (monomères, additifs) au sein de la matière elle-même. Ces phénomènes amènent souvent une perte de transparence du PC et d’autant plus avec la technologie LED qui ne dissipe pas la condensation. Pour y remédier, nous avons utilisé trois approches différentes permettant d’accroître la résistance au transfert des matériaux, à commencer par le traitement de surface par plasma froid afin de déposer sur le substrat de PC une couche barrière organosiliciée. La polymérisation de cette couche est effectuée en mélangeant du dioxygène avec un précurseur organosilicié : l’hexaméthyldisiloxane (HMDSO), le 2,4,6,8-tétraméthylcyclotétrasiloxane (TMCTS) ou le triéthoxyfluorosilane (TEOFS). Les autres approches axées sur les mélanges et l’incorporation de charges ont consisté à élaborer d’une part des micr/nano composites de PC/mica et de l’autre des mélanges de polymères PC/poly(m-xylène adipamide) (MXD6) et enfin le mélange chargéPC/MXD6/mica. Ces films ont été préparés à l’aide d’une extrudeuse bis-vis équipée d’éléments mélangeurs ayant pour but d’améliorer la qualité de mélange de dispersion de la matière. L’ensemble des matériaux obtenus a été caractérisé afin d’établir des relations de structure/morphologie/propriétés. Le dépôt par plasma a permis non seulement d’augmenter la résistance thermique du PC, mais aussi d’accroître son effet barrière à l’eau mais surtout aux gaz (N₂, O₂ et CO₂). L’efficacité du traitement plasma vis-à-vis de l’eau est fortement dépendante du caractère hydrophile du dépôt et de sa densité. Si les composites PC/mica élaborés avec les mélangeurs sont plus barrière à l’eau qu’aux gaz, les mélanges PC/MXD6 sont au contraire bien plus efficaces vis-à-vis des gaz que de l’eau. Ainsi l’ajout du mica à faible taux dans le mélange PC/MXD6 a permis, par effet de piégeage, d’accroître davantage la résistance à l’eau du mélange tout en maintenant des bonnes propriétés barrière aux gaz. Outre les effets barrière obtenus, nous avons réussi, par l’utilisation des éléments mélangeurs, à augmenter la stabilité thermique du PC et à conserver la transparence des films de PC/mica, PC/MXD6 et PC/MXD6/mica. / The aim of the present thesis is to improve the barrier properties of polycarbonate (PC), a stiff and transparent polymer used in automotive industry as material for car headlights. PC represents a place of transfer of gas molecules and vapors coming from inside and/or outside the optics and also of migration of small species (monomers, additives) within the material itself. These phenomena often lead to a loss of the PC transparency, especially with the LED technology which does not allow the condensation dissipation. In order to overcome this limitation, three different approaches allowing the increase of materials transfer resistance were chosen. The first approach consists in the cold plasma surface treatment in order to obtain a barrier organosilicon layer on the PC substrate. This layer is obtained using a mixture of oxygen with an organosilicon precursor : hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDSO), 2,4,6,8-tetramethylcyclotetrasiloxane (TMCTS) or triethoxyfluorosilane (TEOFS). The other approaches focused on the incorporation of fillers and polymer blends permit the elaboration of micro/nano-composites of PC/mica, PC/poly(m-xylene adipamide) (MXD6) polymer blends and charged PC/MXD6/mica blends. These films were prepared using a double-screw extruder equipped with mix elements allowing the improvement of the quality and dispersion of the blend. The physico-chemical characterization of the obtained materials highlights the structure/morphology/properties relationship. The plasma deposition allows an increase of the PC thermal resistance as well as its barrier properties toward water and especially gas (N₂, O₂ and CO₂). The efficiency of the plasma treatment toward water molecules strongly depends on the layer hydrophilicity and density. PC/mica composites elaborated with mix elements are found to be more barrier toward water than toward gas, while PC/MXD6 blends are more efficient toward gas than water. Thus, the addition of low mica contents in the PC/MXD6 blend allowed to further increase the water resistance of the blend by trapping effect, while maintaining its high barrier properties toward gas. In addition, an increase of the PC thermal stability and a presevation of the transparency of PC/mica, PC/MXD6 and PC/MXD6/mica films were revealed using mix elements.